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By Daniel Putnam. 



Tie IMkaii Mil Motak 



Oiclal Organ cf the State Depaitment of Public InstractiOQ, 

The State Teachers* Association, 

The Michigan Schoolmasters* Club, 

City Superintendents' Association, 

The County Examiners' Association, 



A PAPER FOB EVERY GMOE OF SCHOOL WORK. 

i^/^ /-v i-As\aE p. r^I;:s, fall of good thlxiiX^ for Teachers of 
O \.J L/ *-'i^*'i'>' grafi 6. ct j:i V j»R varied read)' q j/ ? S uicre cf It for the 
money ttx&n arjy other educnlional ;o- :■>::- 

Hetriily ladv '"fid <isd SupT)ntted by M' .dgsu Teachers. 

Se^ . \iONTHLY, 20 Numbers per year of a^ ^aoh, $ 1 .50 
5(*nd foi sample copy and c' -b i p 
€!sil«Y Jl. PATTEMOILL, Editor and PuBllsher, 



GEOGRAPHmioHiSiUKiCAL CARDS. 

An Excc^lest Way of Teael^^sg oaf Bbtopy and 6eogi*apliy 

AT ODD M O U S it . 

ONE HUNDRED TWENTY CARDS CON^TAINING MORE THAN 

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"WITH THH MODERATOR ONE YEA.R, $1.7.?!. 

Address, H. R. PATTENGILL; Lansing, l^ich. 



A PRIMER 



PEDAGOGY 



DANIEL PUTNAM, 



TEACHER OF PEDAGOGY, 



MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 







H. R. PATTENGILL, PUBLISHER, 

LANSING, MICH. 



UK, 



D. D. THORP, PRINTER AND BINDER, 
LANSING, MICH. 



Copyright, 1890, 

BY 

Henry R. Pattengill. 



PREFATORY NOTE. 



This work is published with the hope that it may be use- 
ful to some of the many teachers who have neither time 
nor opportunity to pursue an extended course of preparation 
for their work. Its necessary brevity forbids any pretensions 
to completeness; but an effort has been made to put into it 
those things which a teacher most needs to know in order to 
discover, adopt, and use intelligently good methods of teach- 
ing. Those who are familiar with the great mass of material 
included under the general terms pedagogy and pedagogics 
will understand the diflQ^culty of selecting wisely and condens- 
ing skillfully, and will consequently look leniently upon 
imperfections of which the author is painfully conscious. 



siT^ Jj rimer of Jjedagogy. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE teacher's WORK. 

Three questions. — Thi-ee questions naturally present them- 
selves to a person who proposes to prepare himself to do any 
work: 

(1.) Just what is the work which I am preparing to do? 

(2.) By what means and methods, and in what manner, can 
this work be done most easily and thoroughly? 

(3.) How can I prepare myself most readily and completely 
to do this work? 

Should be answered— Every candidate for a teacher's posi- 
tion should put these questions to himself, and should not be 
satisfied until he can answer them with a good degree of clear- 
ness and definiteness. 

Probable answer.— Very likely the answer to the first ques- 
tion, in most cases, will be, the work is teaching, and I pro- 
pose to prepare myself to teach. 

While this reply might be accepted with sufficient explana- 
tion and qualification, it involves the not unusual error of 
putting the means in place of the end. Teaching is not an 
end in itself: it is only and merely a means to an end. We 
do not teach for the sake of the teaching any more than we 
construct a machine simply for the sake of the machine, or 
make a road just for the sake of having the road. We value 



6 A PRIMEK OF PEDAGOGY. 

the machine, not for itself, however beautiful it may be, but 
for what we can accomplish by using it; we value the road 
because it affords a convenient way of going somewhere. So 
we value teaching on account of the purpose which can be 
accomplished by it. That purpose or end is the education of 
the child. 

The real work of the teacher.— The real work to be done, 
the real work of the teacher, is the right education of his 
pupils. 

He teaches in order to attain this end. If the teaching 
secures this, it is good; if it fails to accomplish this, it is 
worthless, or of very little value. 

What is right education ?--If it be agreed that the teacher's 
work is the right education of the child, the question presents 
itself, what is right education '? Without attempting to give 
a complete and formal definition we may safely assume that 
the proper education of a child must include : — 

(1.) The complete development of the child; that is, the 
bringing out into the highest state of possible perfection all 
his powers of body and soul, making of him the most and 
best of which his nature is susceptible. 

(2.) The thorough training of the child. Training is form- 
ing, fashioning, and molding by continual practice, causing 
acts and processes to be repeated until they can be performed 
with great accuracy and rapidity and with little conscious 
effort. 

(3). The proper instructing of the child; that is, the helping 
of the child, so far as aid is needed, to obtain that knowledge 
which will be of the highest value to him as an individual and 
also as a member of the community and a citizen of the State. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 7 

What is produced. — These are the three co-ordinate elements 
or factors ia a complete and symmetrical education: Develop- 
ment produces power, strength, energy; training results in 
skill, dexterity, facility, habit; instruction gives intelligence, 
comprehension, mastery of facts and principles, and should 
tend to the production of virtue and righteousness of charac- 
ter and conduct. Intelligence guides power in the right direc- 
tion; and makes profitable use of skill and dexterity. 

All accomplished at the same time.— These three objects 
are accomplished at the same time and by the same processes 
if right methods are wisely employed by the teacher. Instruc- 
tion must precede and accompany training and furnish the 
material upon which the activity involved in training is exer- 
cised. The exercise which training requires, produces develop- 
ment. 

Some definitions of education. — These statements of what 
education should do for the child are essentially the same as 
those made by many eminent writers. 

Tate. — Tate says: "Elementary education has two ends. 
1. To develop the intellectual and moral faculties; or, in other 
words, to develop the faculties of the perfect man; 3. To com- 
municate to the pupil that sort of knowledge which is most 
likely to be useful to him in the sphere of life which Provi- 
dence has assigned him." 

Milton.— Milton, in his Tractate on education, writes, "I 
call a complete and generous education that which fits a man 
to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously, all the 
offices both private and public of peace and war." In this 
definition Milton has in view the purpose or end to be secured 
by education rather than education itself. 



8 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

Addison.— Addison, in his beautiful style, says, " I consider 
a human soul without education like marble in the [quarry, 
which shows none of its inherent beauties until the skill of 
the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface shine, 
and discovers every ornamental cloud, spot, and vein, that 
runs through the body of it. 

*' Education, after the same manner, when it works upon a 
noble mind, draws out to view every latent virtue and perfec- 
tion which, without such helps, are never able to make their 
appearance." 

Plato. — Plato, in his Laws, seems to have anticipated the 
modern doctrine of "learning to do by doing," and, even 
something of the kindergarten, when he writes, "According to 
my view, he who would be good at any thing must practice 
that thing from his youth upwards, both in sport and in ear- 
nest, in the particular manner which the work requires. For 
example, he who is to be a good builder, should play at 
building children's houses ; and he who is to be a good hus- 
bandman, at tilling the ground. Those who have charge of 
the education of children should provide them when young 
with mimic tools, and they should learn beforehand the 
knowledge which they will afterwards require for their art. 
I'or example, the future carpenter should learn to measure 
or apply the line in play; and the future warrior should learn 
riding, or some other exercise for amusement; and the teacher 
should endeavor to direct the children's inclinations and 
pleasures, by the help of amusements, to their final aim in 
life. The soul of the child, in his play, should be trained to 
that sort of excellence in which, when he grows to manhood 
he will have to be perfected." 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 9 

In speaking of the value of education to tlie State he says: 
""If you ask what is the good of education in general, the 
answer is easy,— that education makes good men, and good 
men act nobly because they are good." 

Divisions of education — If the subject were to be fully con- 
sidered it would be convenient to make several divisions and 
treat e.ach of these separately. It will only be possible here to 
indicate these divisions. 

1. Physical education, which treats of the proper develop- 
ment and training of the body, and of the conditions neces- 
sary for securing and maintaining strength, vigor, and health 
in the physical organism. 

2. Intellectual education, which treats of the development 
and training of the intellectual powers, and of the whole mat- 
ter of instruction, study, and teaching. 

3. Moral education, which considers man as a being capa- 
ble of knowing right from wrong, and free to choose between 
these, and consequently responsible for his conduct. This 
divi^ion treats of the principles which should govern men in 
all the relations of life, and seeks to show how children may 
be taugh't and trained to habits of truthfulness, honesty, 
integrity, and virtue in the highest sense of the word. 

4. Industrial education, which includes " manual training," 
and considers how pupils may be prepared to use to the best 
advantage their powers of body as well as of mind, and may 
be fitted, when leaving school, to enter immediately into some 
business or employment of some kind by which they can gain 
a livelihood and be useful to the Stats. 

It will not be practicable to discuss these divisions separately, 
at any length, in this work. It will be understood that the 



10 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

complete education of a child includes, as far as possible, all 
these varieties of education. 

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I. 

1. Three questions presented to one preparing for any work. 

2. Probable answer to the first question by one preparing to 
teach. 

3. Why this answer is not satisfactory. 

4. Illustrations of the purpose of teaching. 

5. Real work of the teacher. 

6. The three objects which education should include. 

7. The results of development, of training, of instruction. 

8. Relation of these processes to each other. 

9. Definitions of education quoted, Tate, Milton, Addison, 
Plato. 

10. Divisions of the subject of education and purpose of each. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE CHILD. 

Knowledge needed to answer the second question.— The 
question, What is the teacher's work? was answered in the 
first chapter. The second question — by what means and 
methods, and in what manner, can this work be done most 
easily and thoroughly, — cannot be answered so readily and 
briefly. 

The being to be educated is the child. Before we can tell 
how to educate him we must know ivhat sort of a being he is. 
What is there in him to be developed and trained? The 
germs of what powers and capacities does he possess ? What 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 11 

kind of instruction does he need ? and under what conditions 
and circumstances can this instruction be given to the best 
advantage ? 

Illustration. The man who should offer to take charge of a 
valuable young horse, and to train him for use or for the mar- 
ket, would be asked by the owner of the animal what he knew 
about horses, and about the best methods of training them; 
whether he knew what kind of food horses needed, and how 
much, and in what form and at what times it should be given. 
Whether he had carefully studied the nature and disposition 
of horses, and understood how to handle them; how to train 
them so as to bring out their very best characteristics and 
qualities, and to correct any bad or vicious traits which might 
appear in the progress of their education. Such questions 
would he reasonable, and it would be necessary for this can- 
didate for the position of trainer to make clear and definite 
replies. It would hardly be satisfactory for him to say that 
he had seen a great many horses, and could readily distinguish 
them from mules by sight, even at considerable distance. 

Proper to ask of the teacher, — Is it not proper to ask as 
much of the teacher of children as of the trainer of horses f 
and to expect as definite answers of the teacher as of the 
trainer ? What, then, is a child? 

What the child is. — The child is a complex being, curiously 
and wonderfully made, composed of matter, the body; and of 
spirit, the mind or soul. The limjts of a short chapter will 
not allow a complete analysis and study of his nature. It is 
assumed that the reader has some knowledge of the human 
body derived from observation and from instruction in the 
elements of physiology. We shall here notice only some 



12 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 

parts of the nervous system which must be cleaily under- 
stood in order to understand certain activities of the mind. 

Nervous system. —The brain is the great center of the ner- 
vous system. From the brain and the spinal cord small 
threads or cords called nerves extend to all parts of the body. 
Each nerve is composed of a considerable number of very 
minute fibers very closely united. The peculiar property or 
characteristic of the nerves is the susceptibility of being 
impressed, excited, or irritated, and the power of transmitting 
or conveying, in some way, these impressions, excitements or 
irritations. 

Some of the nerves or nerve fibers transmit impressions 
made upon them by external things inward to the brain. 
These are called afferent or sensory nerves. Other nerves con- 
vey impulses or impressions from the brain outward to the 
various parts of the body. These are named efferent or 
motor nerves. For example, I will to take a book from the 
table; the nerves running to my hand and fingers convey the 
order or impulse made upon them by the act of my will ; the 
muscles of the arm, hand, and fingers move in the right 
direction and order and the book is grasped. 

PROCESSES AND ACTIVITIES OF KNOWING. 

The Senses.— We are said to have five senses. This means 
that there are five peculiar and special nerves, called nerves 
of sense, through which we get the beginnings of all our 
knowledge. These are the nerves of touch, taste, smell, 
hearing and sight. They are sometimes called the " gate-ways 
of the soul," because only through these can the soul become 
acquainted with the external world. 

Each of these nerves, except the nerves of touch, receives 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 13 

but one kind of impression and gives to the mind but one 
kind of knowledge. [^ by a most beneficient provision, how- 
ever, if one nerve of sense is lost or destroyed, the others can^ 
to a considerable extent, supply its place. It it also true that, 
by a process of education, one sense learns to do work which 
originally belonged to another sense. For example, we judge 
by sight whether a surface is rough or smooth, although, iu 
the first instance, we must have learned to distinguish the 
rough from the smooth by touch. Other illustrations will 
readily occur to any one who thinks. 

Knowledge derived through the different senses. — By the 
sense of touch in connection with muscular movement and 
resistance, we obtain our first notions of form, distance, direc- 
tion, weight, hardness, softness, roughness, smoothness, and 
of many other characteristics of objects. Taste makes us 
acquainted only with fiavors. Smell gives information con- 
cerning odors alone; hearing is the only gateway through 
which sounds reach the soul. Sight primarily gives knowledge 
of colors and forms ; but very early the child begins to learn 
through this sense, of size, direction, distance, character of sur- 
faces, and of many other things. Education deals very largely 
with the sense of sight. The eye and the hand are of priceless 
value in the schoolroom, as they are in the greater world of 
human affairs generally. 

The senses, instruments of the mind. — The senses are the 
instruments or organs of the mind. Through them the mind 
feels, tastes, smells, hears, and sees. In the processes of edu- 
cation they are to be trained, by proper exercise, to become 
more perfect and more reliable instruments. It is a pai t of 
the teacher's work to provide for such training. 



14 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 

The mind. Consciousness. — The mind orsoulis that within 
us which knows, feels, and wills. Of its substance we have no 
knowledge. We know that we feel, taste, smell, hear, and 
see; that we think, remember, imagine, and reason. This 
kind of knowing we call consciousness, which may be defined 
as the mind knowing itself and knowing its own states and 
activities. 

Relation of consciousness to the senses. Sensation.— The 
relation of consciousness and the senses is easily illustrated: 
I rub the tips of my fingers over the rough surface of an unpol- 
ished piece of stone and then over the surface of a piece of 
highly polished marble. An impression is made in each case 
upon the minute fibers of the nerves. They are irritated or 
excited, and this excitement is conveyed along the nerves to 
the brain. In some way, but how no one has yet been able to 
explain, an impression is made upon the mind. A state of 
mind is produced which is called a sensation. We say, there- 
fore. Sensation is a state of mind produced by an impression 
upon some sensory nerve. 

Beginnings of education.— The mind is immediately aware 
of the sensation through consciousness. In the case just sup- 
posed of rubbing the pieces of stone, the mind recognizes the 
two sensations, compares them, pronounces them unlike, 
declares one piece to be rough, the other smooth. All the 
knotvledge of the child begins ivith sensations. The process 
of education commences just at this point, and commences 
with the knowing of sengations, comparing them, finding their 
resemblances and differences, and making conclusions and 
decisions concerning them. 

Knowledge of external things. — As soon as ; the mind 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 15 

becomes conscious of sensations it begins -spontaneously to 
attribute them to external objects or influences as causes. If 
through the sense of smell it has a sensation of some odor 
t believes the odor came from some object outside of itself. 
This attributing sensations to their causes brings the mind into 
acquaintance with the external world, and produces what is 
called perception. 

Perception.— P^rcephon, as an act, is the mind knowing 
things outside of itself, the world about us. As a power, per- 
ception is the ability of the mind to knoio the external ivorld. 

In the act of perceiving we form in the mind an image, idea, 
or notion of the thing perceived. This product of the act of 
perceiving is called a percept. If I look upon a tre3 and then 
close my eyes and turn away I can form a picture or repre- 
sentation of the tree in my mind. This picture is the percept 
reproduced. If I hear a musical tone I can afterwards form 
an idea or notion of the tone, but not an image or picture. 
The same is true of a taste or an odor. These ideas or notions 
are also recalled percepts. 

Space and time.— The mind is so made that as soon as a 
child begins to know objects he cannot help thinking or know- 
ing that they are somewhere. That somewhere he learns 
to call space. He cannot think of himself without, at the same 
time, thinking that he is in space. He thinks of all things as 
n space, though he cannot tell what space is. 

As soon as he commences to notice that events happen one 
after another, that he sees one thing and then another, that he 
thinks one thought and then another, he has immediately an 
idea of what we call time, though he is unable to describe it. 

Intuition. — That power of mind which cavses the child to have 



16 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

such ideas as those of space and time is called intuition. The 
same power recognizes instantly the truth of what we call 
axioms. They are said to be self-evident truths. We mean 
by this that the mind is so constituted that it cannot help 
accepting them as true as soon as it knows them. It does not 
go through any process of reasoning to reach this conclusion. 
Such truths as these make a starting point in all processes of 
reasoning. No sane mind ever doubts or denies them. 

The perceptive powers.— These three activities of mind, 
consciousness, perception, and intuition, give us the begin- 
nings, what we may call the raw material, of all our knowl- 
edge. Taken together they form a class or group of mental 
activities and are named the perceptive powers. Conscious- 
ness, as before stated, is the mind knowing or perceiving itself, 
and what it does, and how it feels, and what it chooses and 
determines. Perception, as an act, is the mind perceiving or 
knowing external things through the senses. Intuition is the 
mind perceiving or knowing simple ideas, such as the idea of 
time, of space, of beauty, or of right, and of self-evident truths: 
Such as that the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts, or 
that an object can be in only one place at any one time. 

CONCEPTIVE OR REPRESENTATIVE ACTIVITIES. 

Power and process of representation. —As already stated I 
can shut my eyes and yet see, in my mind, a tree, or a house, 
or any other object of sight. There appears to be "in the 
mind's eye, a picture or an image of the object. This picture 
or image is said to represent the object. 

I can think of some sound which I have heard at some past 
time so as to have a pretty clear and distinct idea of the sound. 



A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 17 

Any person who sings must hi able to do this, otherwise he 
could not reproduce to-day the notes of a tune learned yester- 
day or last year. 

In the same way one can form a notion of a taste or a smell 
which has been experienced at some time. If this were not 
so the mouth would not "water" when we think of some very 
delicious article of food. 

Representation from descriptions. — I can also represent 
or picture mentally any object or place when it is described 
to me although I have never myself seen the object or place. 
This process of representation always goes on in the mind 
when one is reading, if the language of the book or paper is 
understood. A book is of no use to a child until he has 
become able to form those mental images and ideas. 

Representation in school. — In the school room the pupil, 
who is told to place an example in arithmetic upon the black" 
board without using his book, must first form a picture or idea 
of the example in his mind before he can produce it on the 
board. The same would be true of a sentence to be written, 
of a map to be drawn, or of a geometrical figure to be repro- 
duced. 

Concepts. — All these mental images, pictures, ideas or 
notions are called simple concepts. They differ from percepts 
in this respect: Percepts are the mental pictures and ideas or 
notions of objects formed when the objects are present to the 
senses; concepts are the mental pictures and notions formed 
when the objects are not present. 

Real representation. — In all the examples thus far men- 
tioned the mind represents things just as they are or just as 
they are supposed to be. This process is dialled real represen- 



18 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

tatioriy and the mental activity which does such work is called 
simple conception or the power of real representation. It is 
also sometimes named reproductive imagination. 

Ideal representation, imagination. —But there is another 
and a different kind of representation which is more properly 
the work of imagination. Mental images and pictures may 
be combined and arranged into new forms unlike any which 
have ever been seen, or which actually exist. In this way the 
painter produces an ideal landscape, putting into a single pic- 
ture the representation of objects from many different locali- 
ties, a mountain from one place, a valley from another, a grove 
from still another, and so on until he has filled his canvas. In 
like manner the story writer fills his book with incidents, 
skillfully woven togethe^r, which originally had no relation to 
each other. Such representations are called ideal, and the 
mental power which creates them is imagination proper. 

Other work of imagination. — The imagination also changes 
things by representing them as larger or smaller than they 
really are, thus making giants and pygmies out of ordinary 
men. It also transforms one thing into another, and repre- 
sents persons and things by objects which have no resemblance 
to them. The boy's stick becomes a horse; the girl's toy table 
is surrounded by an imaginary company of her playmates. 

In school.— In the school-room imagination is of great ser- 
vice. By its help the pupil sees rivers, lakes, mountains, hills, 
villages, cities, railroads, and hundreds of other objects in the 
map hanging on the wall before him, where, in reality, he can 
see only lines and marks of various kinds. 

'M.Q.m.oty.— Memory is the power of mind which retains, 
reproduces and reknoivs knowledge. How it retains we do not 



A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 19 

know. It acts constantly in connection with simple con- 
ception and imagination. In many cases their work could 
not be done without the aid of memory. 

How memory recalls. — The memory can recall and repro- 
duce a few things instantly. A person gives his name, repeats 
the alphabet, answers questions on the multiplication table 
without stopping to think. But in most cases it takes a little 
time to bring back what is asked for. It is not able to get the 
thing wanted by a single effort. It starts with one thing, that 
leads on to another, the second leads to a third, the third to a 
fourth, and so on until the desired object is reached and 
reproduced. All these various things are said to be associated 
or fastened together in the mind, so that any one of them will 
aid the memory in finding the others. There is always a rela- 
tion of some sort between objects and ideas thus associated. 
The relations which cause knowledge to he associated in this 
way are called laws of association. 

Laws of association. — The most important of these laws 
are, (1) the law of similarity, (2) the law of contrast, and (3) 
the law of contiguity. That is, things and thoughts are asso- 
ciated in the mind because they are alike, or because they are 
the opposites of one another, or because they belong in the 
same time, or at the same place, or are in some way closely 
related. These laws are called primary and objective. 

Conditions of mind and body.— In addition to these laws 
there are certain conditions and states both of mind and body 
which help the power of memory very much. For this reason 
such conditions are sometimes called secondary and subjective 
laws of association. 

The most essential of these are'(l) attention, (2) repetition 



20 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

(%) proper feeling, (4) lapse of time, (5) condition of mind, (6) 
condition of body, and (7) employments. Those things are 
usually easily remembered to which we give close attention 
when learning them Some things are fixed in the memory 
simply by many repetitions; others by some vivid feeling 
associated with them. Things can be easily recalled which 
were learned yesterday; those learned a long time ago are 
recalled less readily. If the mind is preoccupied or the body 
is full of pain it is difficult to commit a lesson to memory. 

Finally, men recall readily things connected with their daily 
business. 

The representative or conceptive powers. — Simple con- 
ception, imagination and memory are grouped together and 
called the conceptive or representative powers of the mind. 

THINKING ACTIVITIES. 

Thinking processes.— Having got the matter of knowledge 
by the perceptive powers we hold it and reproduce it by the 
representative powers, and then go on to examine, arrange, 
and classify it so that we can use it for practical purposes, or 
as means by which to obtain additional knowledge. These 
processes of examining, sorting over, and arranging we call 
thinking. 

Analysis, abstractions, generalization. — Things which are 
to be brought together into the same class must possess certain 
common characteristics. These characteristics form the basis 
of the classification. In order to find such characteristics, 
objects must be carefully and thoroughly examined. This 
examination is called analysis. Then these common charac- 
teristics must be picked out from the others and united into a 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 21 

complex notion or concept. This process is termed abstrac- 
tion. Finally all the objects which have these qualities are 
grouped under some common name. This last act is called 
generalization. 

General conception, general concepts. — The mental activity, 
by which these three complex processes of analysis, abstrac- 
tion, and generalization are performed, is named general con- 
ception-, and the mental product is called a general concept. 
This is the simplest thinking operation of the mind. In this 
way we form the ideas or notions expressed by common 
nouns, such as flowers, roses, apples, horses, houses, books, 
and so on. 

The judgment, a judgment.— We are constantly comparing 
objects and pronouncing them alike or unlike. The young 
child begins by comparing sensations and next percepts, or 
objects about him. He compares persons, animals, flowers, 
fruits, and learns to discriminate or distinguish one from 
another. The mental poiver which thus compares, and decides 
concerning things is called the judgment, and the mental pro- 
duct is named a judgment. When a judgment is expressed in 
words, either spoken or written it is termed a proposition or a 
sentence. Stones are hard ; sugar is sweet; the horse is worth a 
hundred dollars. These are all judgments expressed in prop- 
ositions. 

Form of thinking.— This forming of judgments is another of 
the thinking processes; most, if not all, our thinking takes 
this form, as one can determine by analyzing his own mental 
activites. As soon as the child has learned language he 
thinks in words. 

Reasoning.— One other mode of thinking is called reasoning. 



22 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

In this judgments are compared. We assume certain things 
to be true, and then say, if these are true a certain other thing 
must be true also. For example: Liars are bad men; this man 
is a liar; therefore, this man is bad. 

The knowing powers. — General conception, judgment, and 
reasoning form the group of thinking powers. The three 
groups together constitute the knowing powers of the mind or 
the intellect. 

Consciousness. 
1. Perceptive Powers. ^ 2. Sense Perception. 
Svnonsis \ ^ ^* I^^^^ition. 

nf fL 9. nnnPPr.HvP nr R.... ( ^' Simple Conception. 



loFtSr I 2. Conceptive or Rep- ( { ^^^^^ 
Knowmg \ resentative Powers. ] 3 Memory. 
^^^^^^' I ( 1. General Conception. 

I 3. Thinking Powers. I 2. Judgment. 

\ (3. Reasoning. 

THE FEELINGS. 

Bodily feelings.— The body of the child is susceptible of exci- 
tations and irritations called feelings. Some of these are 
pleasant and agreeable; others are painful 'and disagreeable. 
When the body of the child is in good condition the processes of 
digestion, assimilation, and respiration are attended with 
pleasurable feelings. When the body is in bad condition some 
of these processes are painful. The mental activities of the 
child are much influenced by these bodily feelings, and in conse- 
quence of them he is good-natured or ill-natured. 

The best known of the physical feelings are the appetites. 
Some of these are natural, such as the appetite for food and 
drink; some are artificial, being created by habits, such as 
the appetite for tobacco, for opium, and for intoxicating 
liquors. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 23 

Mental feelings.— The mind, also, is susceptible of excited 
states called feelings. These are very numerous, but as they 
are well known through consciousness it will be sufficient to 
mention a few of the most important. 

Classes of feelings -emotions.— There are (1) ^Tie emotions, 
such as the feelings of pleasure, pain, joy, sadness, satisfac- 
tion, dissatisfaction; the higher feelings caused by wit, humor, 
beauty, sublimity; and many others. These excitements of 
mind seem to rise and die away without going out toward per- 
sons or objects. 

Affections.— There are (2) the affections, that is, feelings of 
good-will or ill-will which seem to be directed towards per- 
sons or things outside of ourselves. Among these are the 
love of parents for children, of children for parents, of mem- 
bers of a family for one another, of friends for friends, the 
love of one's country and countrymen. Among the bad affec- 
tions of which the soul is susceptible, are envy, jealousy, anger, 
malice, hatred, and revenge. 

Desires. — There are (3) also the desires, which may be called 
cravings or longings of the mind for things which are supposed 
to be capable of giving pleasure, satisfaction, enjoyment, or 
advantage of some sort. The desire is named from the object 
desired, as, the desire for knowledge, for wealth, honor, 
esteem, power. 

Complex feelings. — Some fee lings are very complex. Among 
these are hope, which is made up of desire and expectation; 
fear, dread, and many others. 

Important for the teacher. — It is of the highest importance 
to the teacher to understand the nature of the feelings, and how 
they are aroused and allayed, because they are the springs of 



24 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

action in the mind of the child. They influence, if they do 
not entirely control, his conduct. He seeks after and strives 
for what he desires. He is induced to act by exciting the 
proper desire. 

THE WILL. 

Analysis of an act of the will.— The ivill consists of the 
mental activities exercised in choosing and determining, or it 
may be called the executive power of the soul; it is that 
exercise of mind which precedes every voluntary act. The 
series of mental processes which result in an act of willing 
seem to take place in this order: An alternative of some sort 
is presented; something may be done or left undone; one of 
several objects may b9 had; of two courses of conduct one is 
to be selected; we may go or remain where we are. 

Order of the mental processes. — When an alternative is 
thus presented the mind must have time for examination and 
deliberation. Keasons for and against are considered, argu- 
ments are weighed, advantages and disadvantages are set over 
against each other. After such deliberation a choice is made; 
one thing or object is preferred to another. Then the final act 
oi volition or determination is made, and the process of willing 
is completed. In aU cases a feeling of desire immediately pre- 
cedes the volition, and appears to be almost a part of that act. 
It will be seen that the mind always follows this order; (1) it 
knows, (2) feels, (3) wills or determines. 

Dealing with the child.— J?i dealing with the child, there- 
fore, the teacher must folloio this same order. Give the knowl- 
edge or information which will excite desire. In this way 
only can the will be reached and moved. Those considerations 
or objects which excite desire are usually termed motives. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 25 

Strictly speaking des re is the motive, but it is convenient and 
according to usage to apply the name both to the desire and to 
that which excites the desire. The exciting cause may be a 
real external object, an object of perception, or it may be 
only an object of thought, a product of the representative 
power. 

Examples. — For example, something which he values is 
■promised to a child to induce him to study a lesson or to 
behave well. The desire to possess the object moves his will, 
and he determines to study, or to conduct himself properly. 
Instead of such an object being pnsented, the child maybe 
told of the pleasure which his diligerco in study, his progress 
in learning, or his good conduct will give to his mother 
and father. In this case the desire of giving such pleasure 
produces the needed action of the will. When something is 
done by a child through fear of punishment, the desire to 
avoid pain or disgrace is the impelling force. In these cases 
it is an object of thought which excites the feeJing. 

THE MORAL NATURE. 

A moral being. — A moral being is a being capable of know- 
ing right from wrong, and free to choose between them, and 
to do whichever he pleases. Only such a being can be blamed 
or jijstly punished for his conduct. Man is such a being. 

The moral nature. — The moral nature of the child consists 
of those powers of his mind which enable him to know the 
Tight, to understand the reasons why he should choose and do 
the right, and which urge and impel him thus to choose and 
do, giving him a feeliDg of pleasure and enjoyment when he 
does the right, and a feeling of pain and dissatisfaction when 



26 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 

he does the wrong. With a single exception these powers are 
the same as those already studied. Their activity is simply 
turned in a different direction, nnd exercised upon different 
subjects, or different material. They are called moral powers, 
because their activity is exercised upon questions of right and 
wrong, of obligations and duties, of things which ought'or 
ought not to be done, or said, or thought, or felt. 

Moral Intuition — Intuition gives the child the primary 
notion of a distinction between right and wrong; that there is 
a right and a wrong about which he has ability to learn. 
Intuition does not teach him what things are right and what 
are wrong. This he learns by other powers. 

Moral perception and judgment. — 3Ioral perception enables 
him to discover the moral qualities of many very simple acts, 
and states of mind. But the right or wrong of all things 
which demand study, examination, and comparison in order to 
learn their nature, he finds out, just as he finds out other 
matters, by using his thinking powers, judgment and reason. 
He must be taught concerning these as he is taught reading, 
arithmetic, grammar, or history. He learns standards, laws, 
or rules for right character and conduct, and decides whether 
things are right or wrong by comparing them with these laws 
or rules. These rules are the moral law so called. 

Conscience.— Conscience, which is the only power peculiar 
to what is called the moral nature, is that within the soul, 
which insists that we shall do what we believe to be right at all 
times and under all circumstances. The judgment, which 
decides of the right and wrong of things, may make mistakes; 
may decide that to be right which is not right, or that to be 
wrong which is not wrong. This may happen through ignor- 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 27 

ance. But conscience is never in error, and is always to be 
obeyed. This is only saying that we should always do what 
we believe to be right. 

Moral feelings.— Obedience to conscience is attended and 
followed by feelings of satisfaction and self- approval; dis- 
obedience is attended and followed by feelings of dissatisfaction 
and self-condemnation, sometimes by anguish and remorse. 
These feelings are emotions. The affections and desires are 
either good or bad, right or wrong, and, consequently, are a 
part of the moral nature. The same may be said of all 
motives. In many cases an act is good or bad according to 
the character of the motive which prompted it. This is recog- 
nized by parents and by teachers, and even in courts of law. 
The aim of the teacher should be to lead pupils to act uni- 
formly from the best and highest motives. 

The will. Freedom of choice. — The will is a most import- 
ant factor in the moral nature because it determines all vol- 
untary conduct. Since the will is moved by desire, and desire 
is excited by the various objects about us which we call 
motives, it is sometimes said that we are not free to choose; 
that we are compelled to choose according to what is called 
the strongest motive. This is a very plausible statement, but 
it is easy to discover its fallacy. There is no absolutely 
strongest motive. We can make objects more and more 
attractive by giving attention to them, by thinking of them 
constantly or frequently. In this way we make them stronger 
motives. We can make objects less and less attractive by 
keeping them out of our thoughts, by turning our backs upon 
them, and thinking of something else. We thus make them 
weaker motives. It requires no arguments to establish this. 



28 A PKIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 

since every one is conscious of possessing power to do so, and 
is also conscious of freedom in choosing. Such freedom is 
recognized everywhere, and children and men are punished 
for bad conduct because of the conviction that they could 
have done otherwise. 

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER II. 

1. Why it is necessary to study the child. 

2. Illustration of the training of a horse. 

3. The child complex, body and mind. 

4. The nervous system; nerves and their offices. 

5. Afferent or sensory nerves; efferent or motor nerves. 

6. The five senses, and the knowledge primarily derived 
through each. 

7. Acquired power of the senses. 

8. The senses instruments of the mind. 

9. The mind. Consciousness. 

10. Relation of consciousness to the senses. 

11. Sensations. Examples. Beginnings of knowledge. 

12. Perception; a percept. 

13. Ideas of space and time, how obtained. 

14. Intuition; axioms. 

15. The group of perceptive powers. 

16. The power and process of representation. 

17. Examples of representation. In school. 

18. Concepts; how they differ from precepts. 

19. Real representation or simple conception. 

20. Ideal representation. Imagination. 

21. Examples of the work of imagination. 

22. Imagination in school work. 



A PRI.MER OF PEDAGOGY. 29 

23. Memory; how it usually recalls. 

24. What laws of association are. 

25. Primary and objective laws. 

26. Secondary and subjective laws. 

27. The group of representative powers. 

28. What thinking is, strictly speaking. 

29. Analysis, abstraction, generalization. 

30. General conception; general concepts. 

31. The judgment; a judgment; reasoning. 

32. The group of thinking powers. 

33. Synopsis of the knowing powers. 

34. The feelings, bodily appetites, natural, artificial. 

35. Mental feelings; emotions, affections, desires, complex: 
feelings. 

36. Importance of a knowledge of the feelings. 

37. The will; analysis of an act of will. 

38. Order of the mental processes. 

39. Examples in dealing with a child. 

40. The moral nature; moral intuition; perception; judg- 
ment; conscience. 

41. The moral feelings. 

42. The will; motives; freedom of choice, 

43. How motives are made stronger and weaker. 

44. Why men are responsible for their conduct. Testimony 
of consciousness. 



30 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

CHAPTER III. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD. 

Development in the plant and animals. —A grain of wheat 
contains in germ everything that grows from it; but the vari- 
ous parts of the plant appear in a regular and uniform order, 
'* first the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear." 
In the growth and development of animal life also we discover 
the same unvarying regularity and uniformity. One power 
and then another and still another reaches maturity; the ani- 
mal passes through several stages or periods before he 
becomes, in all respects, a perfect being of his kind. In these 
different stages he requires different degrees of care and 
attention, different kinds of food, and various differing condi- 
tions. The man who raises sheep or cattle seeks to learn 
what is needed during each stage, and, in his work, directs 
his efforts accordingly. The gardener does the same in 
cultivating his plants. The child is subject, like the plant 
and the animal, to conditions and circumstances in his growth 
and development. 

Subject of chapter.— It has been previously stated that the 
processes of development, training, and instruction must go 
on at the same time. It is convenient, however, to consider 
these under the two heads of development and instruction. 
This chapter will treat of development, and of some inferences 
and deductions from the order in which this takes place and 
from the means employed to produce it. These will enable us 
to discover what the character of schools should be, what 
teaching is, and what relation the teacher sustains to the work 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 31 

of education. Methods of teaching are discussed under the head 
of instruction in the following chapters. 

Use of the term law. — When just the same things take 
place day after day and year after year in a regular and unvary- 
ing order the term law is used to indicate this order, or to indi- 
cate that which is supposed to be the cause of this regularity and 
uniformity. In this way the laws of nature are spoken of. 
The meaning is that the same events are constantly succeed- 
ing each other, and that some unchanging power or force 
causes them to do so. 

Laws of development. — As the development of a child, like 
the development of a plant or the unfolding of a flower, pro- 
ceeds with such regularity and uniformity always and every- 
where, if not interfered with by violence or ignorance, we 
may properly speak of liics of development. These laws are 
easily reduced to three, which may be called, (1.) The law of 
order of development, (2.) The law of condition of develop- 
ment, and (8.) The law of means of development. The dis- 
cussion which follows will have reference chiefly to the 
development of the intellect or the knowing powers of the 
mind. 

First law.— (1.) The law of order of development. The 
mental powers and activities of the child are developed and 
matured in a regu'ar and unvarying order. 

The order.— This order is (1.) The perceptive activities, (2.) 
The conceptive or representative activities, and (3.) TJie think- 
ing activities. It is not to be understood that one class of 
activities appear and come to a good degree of maturity 
before the next class begins to be manifested. The germs of 
all forms of mental activity exist in the child from the very 



32 A PRIMER CF PEDAGOGY. 

beginning of life, and nearly all forms of activity show them- 
selves in some degree, even in the young child. But the pre- 
dominating activities appear in the order named. There is 
first the vigorous activity of the senses, then of memory and 
representation, and lastly of judgment and reason. 

Inferences from this law. — From this law we infer (1.) 
That the time of school life is naturally divided into three 
periods, and that each period has certain peculiarities which 
distinguish it from the other periods. No sharp line of separa- 
tion can be drawn between the periods. The child passes 
gradually and imperceptibly from one to another. Comenius 
said truthfully "nature never moves by leaps." Little by 
little is the universal law in all her operations. 

First period.— (a) The first period is chillhood, which is 
characterized by the marked activity of the perceptive powers, 
the senses. The child learns by seeing, hearing, and hand- 
ling things. He forgets easily and reasons very poorly. His 
judgment is of little worth. He must be taught chiefly 
through the senses, and by these he learns with marvelous 
rapidity. His feelings are as variable as the wind, and his 
conduct as capricious as his feelings. No uniformity of 
behavior can be expected of him. 

Second period.— (5) The second period is youth, which is 
characterized by the special activity of the representative 
powers, memory and imagination. The senses are still very 
active, and the thinking powers begin to manifest themselves 
to a considerable degree. During this time the pupil makes 
great progress in those studies which depend upon the mem- 
ory. Language is readily learned; facts are treasured up; 
material of knowledge is gathered ; processes are easily mas- 



• A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 33 

tered in mathematics and other branches of science. The 
pupil is fond of doing things, but not so fond of explaining 
the reasons for the doing. He should be instructed especially 
through the mental powers which are particularly active. 

Third period. — (c) The third period may be called maturity, 
not indeed full maturity, but the beginning of that state. 
The pupil is by this time in the high school or in the most 
advanced studies of the ungraded school. This period is 
characterized hy the growing activity of the thinking powers, 
conception, judgment, and reason. The senses, as instruments 
for acquiring knowledge, take a subordinate place. The 
activity of memory assumes a different form. Things are 
associated by relations which were not discovered or under- 
stood in the previous periods. Effects are mentally joined 
with their causes; conclusions are united with the premises 
from which they are derived ; results are associated with the 
agents and events which produced them. Teaching, both in 
farm and matter, must be directed chiefly to the thinking 
powers of the student who is no longer a child. 

Second inference. — (2) The second inference is that there 
should be three classes of schools, adapted to the three periods 
of school life, and to the three groups of mental powers. 

First class of schools. — (a) The elementary or primary 
schools constitute the first class. This will include the kinder- 
garten, the lower classes in the graded schools, and the 
primary classes in the ungraded schools. These schools should 
be adapted to the characteristics and needs of pupils in the 
period of childhood in all respects. The school room, the fur- 
niture, blackboards, apparatus, studies, methods of teaching, 
length of lessons and recitations, provisions for physical exer- 



34 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

cise and recreation, should have reference to the pecuharities 
of young pupils. 

Second class of schools.— (&) The secondary schools properly 
include the higher classes of the grammar departments, the 
lower classes cf the high schools, and the advanced classes in 
the ungraded schools. These schools should be adapted, in all 
the particulars previously mentioned, to the characteristics 
and needs of the period of youth. 

Third class of schools. — (c) The advanced schools include 
the most advanced classes in the ordinary high schools, and 
all higher institutions of learning. These must he adapted to 
the needs of students in the period of maturity, and will vary 
in character and arrangements according to the special pur- 
pose of the school. 

Third inference.— (3) The third inference is that methods, 
means, and appliances of teaching are naturally grouped into 
three divisions. 

(a) Elementary methods and appliances, adapted to child- 
hood. 

(b) Secondary methods and appliances, adapted to youth, 
and— 

(c) Advanced methods and appliances, adapted to maturity 
and to the purposes of the institution in which they are 
employed. Methods of instruction are treated in the next 
chapter. It is sufficient to say here that instructors in methods 
not unfrequently lead their pupils into error by neglecting to 
keep in mind these necessary divisions and distinctions. 

Second law.— (2) Second law, condition of development: 
The powers of the child are developed and matured only on 
condition of being properly exercised. Tbis is true both of the 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 35 

powers of body and mind. Any muscle, any limb, any organ 
of the body, never put to use, fails to become strong and vigor- 
ous. The same is true of any power of the mind, of the 
senses, the memory, the judgment; of the affections, of the 
will, and of the moral nature. If any thing is to be made of 
the child he must, in some way, be induced to act. Activity 
is the law of life, and the activity must be voluntary, or self- 
activity. The child must act because he desires to act, must 
use his senses because he is impelled from within to use them. 
It is the teacher's business to excite this desire by the material 
and methods ivhich he employs. If he fails in this his teach- 
ing is worthless. 

A single inference. — A single inference is drawn from this 
law. Provision should be made in all schools and by all 
teachers to secure appropriate exercise for all the powers of 
their pupils. The kind of provision which should be made 
will be determined by the character of the school, by the age 
of the pupils, and by surrounding conditions and circum- 
stances. The provision in the primary school and in the 
kindergarten must, of course, be very different from that in 
the grammar department or in the high school. In the 
elementary schools care must be taken to provide exercise for 
the body as well as for the mind. 

Third law.— (3.) Third law, means of development. Ap- 
propriate matter for study properly presented to the mind of 
the child produces this necessary self- activity. 

Illustration, etc. — The law, as here stated, refers only to 
the mental powers. The term matter includes all objects and 
subjects of study in the schools or elsewhere. The natural 
effect of presenting the right kind of matter for study, in the 



36 A PRIMER OP PEDAGOGY. 

right way, to the perceptive or other mental activities of a 
child may be illustrated by reference to the action of the 
digestive and related organs of the body when food is pre- 
sented to them. If the right kind of food, properly prepared 
and of proper quantity is introduced into the stomach, the 
digestive organs begin to act of their own accord at once. 
There is no necessity for coaxing, or Ihreatening, or driving; 
no prizes or rewards are necessary. The healthy child, at the 
table, finds sulficient stimulation in his natural appetite if the 
food is adapted to his age and his wants. 

Appetite of the mind. — The mind has an appetite as well as 
the body. In the young child we call this appetite curi- 
osity; in the more advanced pupil love of knowledge. The 
material of knowledge is the food of the mind. The mind 
enjoys hearing, seeing and the action of the other senses, 
as much as the palate enjoys the taste of delicious food in the 
mouth. The thinking powers find as much pleasure in sort- 
ing over, comparing, and arranging matters of study as the 
digestive organs of the body do in their work. The powers 
of the mind grow, develop, gain strength and energy by 
receiving and digesting mental food as the powers of the body 
do by receiving and digesting material food. 

First inference.— (a) The first inference from the third law, 
therefore, is this: The primary relation of knowledge, that 
is, of all subjects of study, to the education of a child is that 
of means to an end. The end proposed is the complete 
development, the thorough training, and the proper instruct- 
ing of the pupil. The various studies, presented to the mind 
in the right way and at the right time, excite the mental 
activities which produce these results. 



A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 37 

Another relation. —Knowledge has also another relation to 
education. It is, to a certain extent, an end in itself; it is 
useful in practical life. Things are taught and learned 
because they will be of service in business, and in various 
ways. So-called practical people usually think only of this 
relation, just as they think of food only as the means of grat- 
ifying their appetites. The food, however, serves its primary 
purpose of nourishing the boiy and securing its development, 
even better probably because this purpose is not thought of 
while it is received. So the primary purpose of acquiring 
knowledge is accomplished nearly as well when only the 
secondary purpose is kept in view. Useful knowledge pro- 
motes mental growth and development as well as any other, 
though not always in precisely the same direction. 

Second inference. — (&) The second inference from this law 
gives us a tolerably complete statement of what real teaching 
is. Teaching is presenting appropriate matter for study to 
the learner in such a way as to excite the necessary and proper 
mental activity, and giving right direction to this activity. 
If this statement is correct, it is easy to see what the teacher's 
work is. It is not, in any strict construction of language, 
to impart knowledge or to give information. It is rather to 
bring the inind of the pupil and the matter of study, the thing 
to be learned, face to face, so to speak; to place the two in 
such relation that the activities of the mind shall be so 
aroused, excited, and allured that they must and will do their 
proper work, will seize hold upon the thing to be learned and 
will not loosen their grasp until it is mastered. Knowledge is 
not imparted to the child by this process. It is simply put 
within his reach, and he is directed, encouraged, and aided, 



38 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 

SO far as may be necessary, to make it his own. The teacher 
does not feed the child, but helps him to feed himself; does not 
carry him up the hill and over the rough places, but points 
out the path and assists him to walk alone. 

The best teacher. — He is not the best teacher who does the 
most for his pupil, but rather he tvho enables the child to do 
most for himself. He can do most for the child who knows 
most perfectly the child's nature, and understands the influ- 
ences and motives which impel him to action, and who has 
the practical skill, gained by observation and experience, so 
to touch the sensibilities of the pupil as to bring out the very 
best there is in him — his best mental activity, and his noblest 
moral qualities. 

RECAPITULATION. 

The three laws of development and the inferences from them 
enable us to reach definite conclusions in relation to several 
matters of great practical importance to every teacher who 
wishes to have clear ideas of what schools should be, of what 
real teaching is, and of what his own duties are towards the 
children whom he assumes to instruct and guide. 

1. They determine what the general character of the differ- 
ent classes of schools should be. 

2. They guide in the selection and arrangement of the 
branches and parts of branches of study to be pursued in each 
class of schools. The studies must be adapted to the needs 
and the predominant mental activities of the pupils. 

3. They show the primary and secondary relation of knowl- 
edge to education; first, the relation of means; second, that 
of an end; the two being compatible with each other. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 39 

4. They help us to see just what real teaching is or should 
be, and what relation it sustains to the education of a child. 

5. This enables us to discover precisely what the work of 
the true teacher is, and what the criterion of excellency in 
that work should be. 

6. These laws determine what should be taught during each 
period of school life, but do not indicate definitely how the 
teaching should be done, that is, do not determine specific 
methods of teaching. 

SUMMARY. 

I, Illustration of development in the plant and animal. 
3. Subject of the chapter, development. 

3. What the inferences from the order of development will 
show us. 

4. Use of the term law; what laws of nature are. 

5. Names of the three laws of development. 

6. State the first law. 

7. Give the order in which the groups of powers are devel- 
oped. 

8. One power not fully developed before another begins to 
be active. 

9. First inference from first law. 

10. The characteristics of the first period of school life. 

II. How the child must be taught during this period. 

13. The characteristics of the second period of school life. 

13. How teaching should be done in this period. 

14. The characteristics of the third period of school life. 

15. How teaching should be directed during this period. 

16. Second inference from the first law. 

17. What the first class of schools should be. 



40 A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

18. What the second class should be. 

19. What the third cla33 should hi. 

20. Third inference from first law. 
31. The second law of development. 
22. The teacher's duty to excite desire. 

28. The single inference from the second law. 

24. The third law of development. 

25. Illustration by reference to the action of the digestives 
organs of the body. 

26. Appetite of the mind. 

27. First inference from the third law; first relation of 
knowledge to education. 

28. Another relation; the two relations not incompatible. 

29. The second inference from the third law, definition of 
teaching. 

30. Real work of the teacher. 

31. The best teacher. 



CHAPTER IV. 

INSTRUCTION OR TEACHING AND TRAINING. 

Method —Method is a way to an end. Hamilton says, "All 
method is a rational progress, a progress toward an end." 
*' Method is the way of reaching a givfen end by a series of 
acts which tend to secure it." 

Methods in tea.ch'mg.—3Iethods in teaching are ways by 
which the teacher seeks to reach desired results. For example, 
the alphabetic, phonic, and word methods are so many dif- 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 41 

ferent ways of teaching young children to recognize at sight 
the forma of written and printed words, and to utter cor- 
rectly the sounds indicated by the characters. The method 
adopted will include the whole series of acts and processes 
involved in arranging and teaching a single lesson or in 
teaching a number of consecutive and related lessons. 

What determines methods. — What determines correct 
methods of teaching? and how can these methods be most 
readily and surely learned? The laws of development, as 
already stated, will guide in the selection of matter to be 
studied and taught during the different periods of school life, 
but they do not indicate clearly in what way subjects of 
study should be presented; that is, they do not determine 
methods of teaching. 

An Illustration — An illustration will show the answer to 
these questions. The student of physical science wishes to 
put what we call the forces of nature to doing some work 
for him ; to make electricity light up the streets of a city or 
turn tha wheels of a street car, or transmit a message 
through a telegraph wire. He first seeks to discover how 
the forces of nature act when left to themselves. He makes 
experiments; questions, watches, waits, listens, and exercises 
long patience. He learns that certain results follow cer- 
tain conditions arranged in a particular way, and that these 
results do not follow any other arrangement of conditions 
or circumstances. After a sufficient number of repetitions he 
becomes satisfied that he has discovered what he names a 
law of nature. He arranges the necessary conditions and 
thus makes nature his servant. His methods are merely 
imitations and copies of nature's methods, and the measure 



42 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

of his success will be determined by the perfection of the 
imitation. The scientist obeys nature in order to command 
her; in his work he follows her teachings and applies her 
instructions. 

What the true teacher does. — The true teacher imitates 
the scientist. His object is to learn in what way he may 
teach the child most successfully. In order to do this he 
must ascertain in what way, by what methods, the child 
learns when left to himself. He must discover by intelligent 
observation, by long and patient searching, if need be, what 
forms of activity the child's mind exhibits when acting 
spontaneously without either constraint or restraint. He 
must notice in what order these natural activities manifest 
themselves, what relation appears to exist between them, 
and what conditions and circumstances seem to be neces- 
sary to render their action most fruitful. Having made 
such discoveries, the teacher has only to create the required 
conditions and to follow the mind's own order and methods of 
working. If it is discovered that the mind seeks to grasp 
or take in the material of knowledge in a particular way 
and form, the teacher should present it in that way and 
form. If the mind proceeds to elaborate its knowledge, that 
is, to sort it over, arrange, and classify it, in some 
uniform order and by some specific method, the teacher 
must adopt this order and method in his work of instruction. 
If the mind retains and reproduces its acquisitions through 
the spontaneous action of certain natural laws of associa- 
tion, the teacher must learn these laws and make constant 
use of them in all school exercises. This is a rational inter- 
pretation of the maxim of Comenius that, "educational 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 43 

methods should follow the order of nature," although it may 
not be the usual one. 

Conclusion. — We reach this conclusion: Methods of teach- 
ing are determined by the natural modes of the mind's 
activity. The teacher's ways of working must conform to the 
mind's ways of working. Right methods of teaching are 
such as follow the path along which the mind goes when free 
to choose its own way, incited by its innate love of activity. 
This is " following nature." This leads us to inquire con- 
cerning some of the most important and characteristic forms 
or modes of mental activity and the methods of teaching 
deduced from them. 

General forms of mental action.— 5^o?72e forms of mental 
action are common to all periods of life, to all stages of develop- 
ment, and to all conditions and circumstances. These are 
essentially the same in nature in the child and in the man. 
They differ only in degree and in productiveness. 

Special forms of mental action, — Some other forms of men- 
tal activity are peculiar to particular periods of life, to special 
stages of development, and to peculiar conditions and circum- 
stances. Childhood has its own peculiar psychical activities, 
and so also have youth and maturity. 

General laws of mind. —Statements of these universal or gen- 
eral modes of mental action may he called general laws of 
mind. From these general laws of mind equally general laws 
of teaching may be deduced. These laws of teaching are, in 
substance, descriptions of methods of teaching. 

Four such laws. — These general laws of mind are easily 
reduced to four; the first relates to the methodby which the mind 
grasps or receives knowledge; the second relates to the method 



44 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



which the mind employs in assimulating or arranging its 
knowledge in proper order so that raw material becomes real 
knowledge ; the third relates to the methods or processes by 
ivhieh the mind is able to retain and reproduce its acquisitions 
when it wishes to use them; and the fourth relates to certain 
conditions necessary in order that the mind may do the best 
work of which it is capable 

That the relation between them may be readily seen, the 
laws of mind and the corresponding laws of teaching are 
arranged side by side. 



GENERAL LAWS OF MIND. 

I. First Law of Mind. 

The mind, at all periods of 
development, grasps or re- 
ceives the material of knowl- 
edge, or that which it is learn- 
ing, in the form of wholes or 
aggregates and masses, as far 
as this is possible. 

II. Second Law of Mind. 

a. In studying, thinking 
over, and arranging the matter 
which it has received, the 
mind proceeds first from 
wholes to parts, from aggre- 
gates and masses to elements, 
thus attaining complete and 
definite knowledge. This pro- 
cess is analysis. 

b. Afterwards the mind pro- 
ceeds to put these parts and 



GENERAL LAWS OF TEACHING. 

I. First Law of Teaching. 

The teacher should present 
the material of knowledge, or 
that which is to be taught, to 
the mind of the learner in the 
form of wholes or aggregates 
and masses, as far as this is 
possible. 

II. Second Law of Teaching, 

a. The teacher, in aiding the 
learner to acquire definite and 
complete knowledge, should 
proceed first by analysis, from 
wholes to parts, and from ag- 
gregates and masses to ele- 
ments, giving full explana- 
tions and illustrations. 

b. Afterwards he should 
teach how these parts and 



A PEIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 45 



elements together into new 
wholes and aggregates, in this 
way increasing its knowledge 
and making it productive. 
This process is synthesis. 



elements may be put together 
by synthesis, into new wholes 
and aggregates, and should 
give the pupil much practice 
in this work. 



Fundamental laws. — These are the great fundamental laws 
of learning and teaching. Their application covers a large 
part of the teacher's work in all classes of schools. It is there- 
fore, desirable to be sure that these statements are correct, 
and that the mind does proceed in the order named, first ana- 
lyzing and then reuniting. 

How the senses present knowledge. — The senses are the 
activities through which the mind gets the beginnings of all 
its knowledge. In what form or condition do the senses pre- 
sent things to the mind ? Our own experience enables us to 
answer at once. If an object, like an apple or an orange, 
which affects several of the senses, is brought before us, all the 
senses affected respond simultaneously. Sensations of sight, 
touch, taste and smell force themselves in upon the mind in a 
confused mass. We have at first only a very general and very 
confused idea of the object. We have a great number of par- 
tial and imperfect percepts, such as one gets from a single and 
hasty glance. We have yet no real knowledge. What takes 
place ? The mind proceeds immediately and spontaneously to 
examine the sensations one by one, now giving attention to 
the color, the form, the size ; now to the character of the sur- 
face, whether it be smooth or rough ; now to the hardness or 
softness; now to the smell and taste. This process of analysis 
goes on until every quality or characteristic which can affect 
any one of the senses has been, in turn, thoroughly investi- 
gated. The idea of the object is no longer confused and India- 



46 A PRIMER OP PEDAGOGY. 

tinct. The final, complete percept has become a collection of 
individual elements, each one of which can be made, and has 
been made, a separate object of thought. Synthesis here has, 
perhaps almost unconsciously, followed the analysis. The object 
has been, so to speak, taken to pieces and put together again. 

Examples. — Essentially the same processes take place when- 
ever any new object of perception is presented to the senses as 
a body, or to any single sense. When listening to a choir of 
singers or to the music of an orchestra, a great aggregate of 
mingled sounds of voices or instruments strikes simultaneously 
upon the ear, and produces a confused mass of sensations. It 
is only by fixing the attention on the tones of singles voices or 
the notes of particular instruments that we attain anything 
like definite knowledge. 

How the child gains knowledge. — The child, till he enters 
school, is constantly gaining knowledge in this way, is analyz- 
ing wholes and aggregates to find their parts and elements. 
Thus be learns trees, and flowers, and fruits, indeed all things 
about him. This is Nature's method of instruction. Progress 
is not " from the simple to the complex," but rather " from the 
complex to the simple." 

Hamilton.— Hamilton says: "The first procedure of the mind 
in the elaboration of its knowledge is always analytical. It 
descends from the whole to the parts, from the vague to the 
definite." " Having first acquired a comprehensive knowledge 
(that is a general notion) of a thing as a whole, we can descend 
to its several parts, consider these both in themselves, and in 
relation to each other, and to the wholes of which they are 
constituents, and thus attain to a complete and articulate 
knowledge of the object." 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 47 

Caution. — A word of caution may be necessary. It is easy 
to misinterpret or misapply a general truth or rule. A whole 
may be too great for the senses or the mind to grasp by one 
effort. A whole of sight must be limited to the field of distinct 
vision. The whole presented to any sense cannot be extended 
beyond the reach of that sense. A great whole is often sus- 
ceptible of natural division into several lesser wholes, each 
complete in itself. It is only necessary that there be 
completeness and unity. " The whole may be a whole man, 
or only his face, or his eye, or the pupil of his eye, or even a 
mere speck upon the pupil." The' whole, in each case, will be 
determined by the purpose in view, by the end to be attained. 

Illustrations.— A few examples will illustrate how the teacher 
may apply these two laws, which require us to begin with a 
whole, and proceed first by analysis and then by synthesis. 

Teaching reading. — Of the various methods of teaching 
young children to read, the alphabetic and phonic are syn- 
thetic. The first begins with elements addressed to the eye, — 
letters; the second begins with elements addressed to the ear, — 
sounds. Both proceed to combine elements to form wholes, 
words and sentences. Two other methods, though the two are 
really but one, the word and the sentence methods, are analytic, 
beginning with wholes in the form of single words or short sen- 
tences. These words are then separated into their elements, 
single letters and sounds, by analysis ; afterwards these ele- 
ments are combined to form new words and sentences. 

From the known to the unknown. — In all teaching the 
maxim, '' Proceed from the know7i to the unknown,''^ rightly 
interpreted, should be followed. Suppose the maxim to mean 
this: When presenting a new lesson, or a neiv subject, to a 



48 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

child, make what the child already knows the stariing pointy 
and from this lead him, by natural and easy steps, to grasp 
and master the new, the now unknown thing. The known 
selected as the point of departure, should be chosen with 
careful reference to some obvious relation existing between it 
and the unknown thing which is to be learned. 

The known to the child in the reading lesson. — The child, 
commencing to learn to read, knows many objects, qualities, 
acts, and relations of things; and he also knows the spoken 
names or signs of all these. The spoken signs, that is, the word?, 
are known as wholes; and the words and what they represent 
are thoroughly associated in the mind so that either will 
immediately suggest the other. So much is the known. The 
unknown consists of a set of new signs, addressed to the eye, 
that is, written and printed words. These are to be learned 
and mentally associated with the spoken words and also with 
the objects, and acts, which they represent. The spoken word 
is here the starting point. The step from this to the written 
word, taken as a whole, is short, direct acd easy. It conforms 
to the law : Begin with the whole. 

First step. — Teach first, therefore, a number of words or 
short sente7ices as wholes. This work can be done most effect- 
ively by the use of the blackboard and crayon. The maxim, 
" One thing at a time,"" should be kept in mind. Bo not try to 
teach too many new words at one lesson. Sometimes a single 
new word will be enough. When the new words have certain 
similarities to words already taught, several may be included 
in a lesson, perhaps three or four. Suppose the sentence, The 
hoy runs, has been taught. Taking this as a beginning, intro- 
duce new words to form the sentences, The girl runs, The 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 49 

horse runs, The dog runs, and so on indefinitely. The sentence 
may be varied in other ways; as : The boy ivalks, The boy 
sits, The boy stands; or, after several nouns and verbs have 
been learned, in this way : The boy runs up the hill; The boy 
runs doion the hill; The boy runs over the hill. Another 
change should be made, at the proper time, by introducing the 
plural number, as: The boys run. The attention of the class 
should be directed to the slight changes in the forms of the 
words, and several sentences should be taught to illustrate 
these changes. 

These examples are sufficient to show what is meant by 
beginning with a whole in teaching young children to read. 
This method imitates and follows nature, and it also goes 
from the known to the unkxiown in a natural way. This is 
merely the first step, however. 

The second step. — The second step is to analyze or separate 
the words, lohich have been learned as wholes, into their parts 
or elements ; that is, into the separate letters and sounds of 
ivhich they are composed. Until this is done they are not 
thoroughly learned. This analysis should be made clear both 
to the eye and ear. For example the word dog may be writ- 
ten on the board in the usual form, and pronounced in the 
usual manner. Then it may be written with the letters 
separated, thus : d o g, and the sound of each letter may be 
uttered separately and distinctly. In this way, or in some other, 
if a different way is preferred, the work of analysis should be 
carried on until all the letters are learned, and most of the 
elementary sounds. The diacritical marks will very naturally 
be taught and learned in connection with this analysis. 

The third step,— Pupils are now prepared, if the work thus 



50 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

far has been thoroughly done, to begin the third step, the syn- 
thetic work. TJiis consists inputting together these parts and 
elements to form new words. The child is now able to learn 
new words with very little assistance. His progress from this 
point should be comparatively easy and rapid. Analysis 
prepares the way for synthesis. Real teaching usually involves 
both processes. 

The laws applied to lessons in language —Lessons in read- 
ing are lessons in language, and instruction in reading pre- 
pares the way for more specific and formal instruction in 
language. The laws which we are considering, require such 
instruction to begin ivith the sentence, which is the natural 
unit of language. Begin (1) by teaching children to express 
their ideas about common and familiar objects ia correct oral 
sentences. Give much practice in this, guiding them by ques- 
tions and suggestions, to form all the various kiads of simple 
sentences. If mistakes are made, lead them, as far as possi- 
ble, to make corrections for themselves. 

Give practice. — (2) As soon as children are able to write 
with some facility, give them ahimdant practice in writing 
sentences of all kinds. Interest in this work will be increased 
by having the sentences united to form connected descriptions 
and short stories. Simple stories may be read or told by the 
teacher or by some of the pupils, and the children may repro- 
duce these, sometimes orally, sometimes in writing. TJiis 
kind of language work, with natural variations and additions, 
should be continued through all the primary grades. Sen- 
tences of all forms and varieties are thus learned as wholes. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 51 

Analysis.— (3) After a good degree of facility in construct- 
ing sentences has been acquired, the work of analysis should 
be commenced. First the main parts of sentences, the subject 
and the predicate, should be learned; then, one after another, 
the various modifiers ; and finally all the parts of speech with 
their variations of form and use. This part of the work should 
not be hastened, and everything should be made as clear as 
possible. 

Synthesis. —(4) The synthetic work, which consists in put- 
ting together the elements of sentences to form new sentences, 
should be commenced in connection with the analysis or as 
soon as the elements and parts are well understood. Exer- 
cises in forming sentences containing particular nouns, verbs, 
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and so on , will be profitable 
and interesting. As pupils advance in their work the syn- 
thetic processes will include the writing of stories, essays, and 
descriptions of various kinds. 

The productive work. — It should be observed that here, as 
in all studies, the analytic ivork is, in reality, only preparatory 
to the synthetic. The latter is the productive work. Too much 
time and labor are frequently spent upon analysis, and too 
little upon the constructive processes. The ability to take 
things to pieces is of less value than the skill which helps one 
to put them together, or to make similar new things. 

Lack of space prevents the application of these general laws 
to methods of teaching other branches of study, but the intel- 
ligent teacher can easily apply them for himself. 



52 A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



III. Third law of mind. 

The mind retains and repro- 
duces what it has learned by 
natural principles or laws of 
association. The effectiveness 
of these laws is increased by 
certain conditions of mind and 
body. 



III. Third law of teaching. 

The teacher, in arranging 
lessons and in giving instruc- 
tion, should have constant 
reference to the natural laws 
of association, and should en- 
deavor to produce in his pupils 
proper conditions of mind and 
body. 

Laws of association. — The most important of these laws 
and conditions have been mentioned in treating of the mental 
activities under memory. They are similarity, contrast, and 
contiguity. The law of contiguity embraces a large number 
of relations such as the sign and thing signified ; cause and 
effect ; subject and attribute ; whole and parts, and many 
others. 

What this law covers. — This third law coders the whole 
subject of the development and cultivation of the memory, a 
subject of the highest importance both to scholars and teach- 
ers. Knowledge is of little practical value unless it can be 
recalled when wanted. It is the teacher's business to see that 
lessons are so assigned and so learned that the matter of them 
can be reproduced. The undue prominence given to memory 
by some old methods of teaching has created a disposition, in 
some quarters, to undervalue its proper cultivation. 

Upon what memory depends. — The power to retain and 
recall our acquisitions depends upon (1) the depth, vividness, 
and distinctness of the impression made upon the mind, and 
(2) upon the formation of proper associations or connections 
between the neio knowledge and something previously learned ; 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 53 

or, when this is not possible, between different things learned 
at the same time. It is better to make the association between 
the new and the old, and usually this can be done. 

Upon what the impression depends. — The character of the 
impression made upon the mind depends primarily and chiefly 
upon (1) the sort of attention given in the learning, and sec- 
ondarily (2) upon repetition. Intense and absorbing attention 
produces an effect upon the mind which may be compared to 
that produced upon some yielding substance by a single heavy 
and vigorous stroke of a sharp pointed hammer. One blow is 
sufficient to secure the necessary impression. The effect of 
repetition is like that produced by a great number of light 
strokes. Each blow increases the depth a little. Many strokes 
are necessary to produce the desired impression. A single act 
of intense attention may be sufficient for older students, but 
young children must have an abundance of repetitions. 

Suggestions as to attention. — Since securing and com- 
manding attention is one of the most effective means of culti- 
vating and improving the memory, a few suggestions in 
relation to attention will be in place at this point. 

1. The teacher should keep in mind the fact that the atten- 
tion of young children is, to a very large extent, non-voluntary; 
that is, the attention is not directly under the control of the 
will. Inattention on their part is not evidence of great per- 
versity of disposition or character. 

2. While the attention of children may be arrested and 
directed for a short time by commands and requests, it can not 
be held by such means. Appropriate allurements and entice- 
ments must be employed. Objects of study must be made as 
attractive as possible ; curiosity must be excited, and the love 
of variety must be gratified. 



54 A PEIMEB OF PEDAGOGY. 

3. Attention follows interest. If the teacher is alive and 
thoroughly interested, full of enthusiasm, these feelings will 
be communicated to the children by the natural power of 
sympathy. The teacher's interest will usually create interest in 
pupils. 

4. Make only reasonable demands upon the attention of 
yovng children. All lessons and exercises should he short, 
with frequent intervals of relaxation and with much physical 
exercise, 

5. In dealing with advanced pupils treat them as if you 
expected attention from them. Assume that they are ready 
and willing to give it. Teachers, like other people, usually 
find what they look for and anticipate. 

6. Conduct recitations so as to make constant attention 
necessary on the part of every scholar. Questions should gen- 
erally be put to the class as a whole, and then individuals 
should be called upon to answer them. At any point in the 
recitation call for statements previously made, or for a sum- 
mary of the work already done. Speak distinctly, but in a 
natural and ordinary tone of voice, and do not fall into the 
habit of repeating questions and statements over and over. 
Let it be understood that questions are to be stated but once. 

The second point. — The second matter to be considered in 
the training of memory is the formation of proper and effec- 
tive connections or associations, the uniting of new knowledge 
to what has been already fixed in mind, and the uniting of the 
various parts of the new matter so that any one part will be 
sure to suggest all the rest. 

How the union is effected. — This union of the different 
parts will he effected hy arranging and presenting them in 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 55 

some natural order under the law of contiguity so that the 
first suggests the second, the second the third, and so on. In 
many cases the laws of similarity and contrast will determine 
the order. In such case one law reinforces another and the 
union is rendered still stronger. Suppose, for example, one 
wishes to fix in memory the names of ten persons or places 
which have no apparent relation to each other. Any one of 
several methods of arrangement may be adopted. They may 
be arranged alphabetically, that is so that the initial letters 
follow each other in alphabetical order. This is a good 
arrangement if nothing more is desired than to retain the 
names. Here we follow an order which repetition alone has 
made familiar. 

End in view to be regarded.— If the names are names of 
cities, and the desire should be not only to fix the names but 
also to indicate, at the same time, their relative size, the words 
should be arranged in the order of population, the name of 
the most populous being placed first. If the words are names 
of men, they may be arranged in the order of age, or in the 
order of notoriety. The particular order adopted in any 
given case must be determined by the end in view. 

Laws in arithmetic. — In teaching primary arithmetic the 
laws of similarity and contrast are especially useful, and 
should be kept constantly in mind by the teacher. Similarity 
is noticed in the increase in value of figures from right to 
left, in the separation of figures with periods, in the repetition 
of figures in writing numbers above ten, and in many other 
points. The similarity of multiplication and addition will 
suggest that they be taught in connection. 



56 A PRIMEB OF PEDAGOGY. 

The law of contrast will cause subtraction to be taught in 
connection with addition, and division with multiplication. 
Similarity will unite subtraction and division. The third gen- 
eral law of mind and of teaching seems to require that the 
four so-called fundamental operations in arithmetic be taught 
and learned simultaneously. 

Elementary reading. — ^^In teaching elementary reading the 
first law of association employed is that which binds together 
the sign, that is the name, with the thing signified, the object, 
act, and so forth. The end sought in teaching, at this time, is 
to make this association so firm that the thing will instantly 
suggest the sign, or the sign the thing, and also to associate 
the oral sign or word with the written one so thoroughly that 
either will immediately suggest the other. The child is not 
prepared to use a book profitably until this has been accom- 
plished. 

The law of similarity also does valuable service in the early 
stages of this work, as it does in the more advanced stages. 
If the form and sound of the letters at have been learned in 
the word cat, they should be recognized at once in the new 
words presented, such as hat, sat, rat, mat. If the sentence 
" I have a hook,'" has been taught, then the similarity of such 
sentences as " You have a book, we have a book," and so on, 
will make the work of learning very easy. Examples might 
be multiplied, but these are sufficient to show in what direc- 
tion the teacher's duty lies. This law of similarity is of con- 
stant service in all language work from the lowest to the 
highest grades, and should be observed in the preparation and 
arrangement of all lessons. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 57 

In geography. —In geography things are grouped together, 
to a large extent, under th@ laws of similarity and contrast; 
but the law^ of contiguity is of especial service. Rivers are 
learned and associated readily by following coast lines. Towns 
and cities are associated in the same way, or by following 
lines of railroads. Persons, places, and events are associated 
together; industries are associated with the places where they 
are carried on; agricultural and other products with the locali- 
ties which produce them. 

In history.— The associations employed in teaching history 
are made by the laws used in geography. In more advanced 
historical work the law of cause and effect is of much service; 
events are traced backward to their causes, or onward to their 
consequences ; the characters of men are associated with the 
conditions which fashioned them, and with their influence 
upon the age in which they lived and upon subsequent ages. 

Other branches of study.— Without particular reference to 
other branches of study, these illustrations are sufficient to 
indicate how memory is to be cultivated, and what the teacher 
should attempt to do in all lessons. Much teaching and many 
lessons amount to nothing because no proper use is made of 
the principles of association. All valuable training of the 
'memory depends upon making such arrangement of the mat- 
ter to be remembered, and producing such conditions that the 
mind can act freely and vigorously according to its own 
natural laivs of association. Artificial systems for cultivating 
and increasing the power of memory have very little value. 



58 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 



IV. Fourth law of teaching. 

The teacher should present 
only a properly limited amount 
of matter to the mind of a 
pupil at one time, and should 
provide for sufficient variety 
in subjects of study and for 
periods of relaxation and rest. 



IV. Fourth law of mind. 

The mind can receive only a 
limited amount of matter at 
one time, and in order to secure 
the most vigorous and produc- 
tive activity the mind must 
have some variety in subjects 
of study and periods of relax- 
ation and rest. 

No definite rules. — No definite rules can be given in respect 
to the length of lessons in different branches of study. Only 
general suggestions can be offered, but the subject is import- 
ant enough to demand careful consideration. As a rule, young 
and inexperienced teachers give longer lessons than older and 
more experienced ones. 

Things to be considered. — Several things must be taken 
into account : (1) The general ability and previous training 
of a class. Considerable differences are found in the average 
ability of different classes ; (2) the nature of the study. Some 
studies require more time and thought than others ; (3) the 
number of studies pursued by a class at the same time. A 
class with only two or three studies can take longer lessons 
than one with four or more; (4) the time given to a recitation. 
A recitation occupying thirty or forty minutes may properly 
cover more ground than one confined to fifteen or twenty 
minutes; (5) the method of teaching. Some so-called teachers 
merely hear recitations ; others do some actual teaching. As 
a rule it requires more time to teach than it does simply to 
listen while pupils repeat what they have learned. It should 
be understood, both by teachers and scholars, that the number 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 59 

of pages of a text-book " gone over " is no certain criterion of 
the actual progress made by a class. A small amount of mat- 
ter thoroughly mastered is worth more than twice the amount 
"skimmed over" and not half learned. Generally only one 
or two really important points should be included in a single 
lesson for young children. The concentration of attention, 
thought, and effort upon one thing at one time is the prime con- 
dition of fruitful study. 

Assignment of lessons. Lessons should be assigned with 
great care, especially to young children. It is not sufficient to 
say, take so many pages or so many paragraphs. The precise 
things to be learned should be pointed out, and all matters of 
special importance should be indicated. Children often waste 
much time in fruitless effort because they are not properly 
directed. It is safe to say that no teacher can assign a lesson 
wisely unless he has himself thoroughly and freshly pre- 
pared it. 

Rest and change important.— The importance of relaxation 
and rest of mind can hardly be overestimated. The efficiency 
and productiveness of any form of mental activity depend 
very largely, indeed almost entirely, upon the freshness and 
vigor of the mind. Scholars sometimes estimate their merits 
as students by the number of times a lesson has been studied 
over, or by the number of hours occupied in so-called study- 
ing. One might as well estimate his merits as a traveler by 
the number of hours spent on the road. The prime factor 
both in study and travel is the rate of speed; and the rate 
must, in most cases, depend upon the freshness of the student 
or the traveler. The aim of every student should be to acquire 
the power to do a certain amount of mental labor in the short- 



60 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

est time in which it can he ivell done. The aim oi the teacher 
should be to help the pupil in the acquisition of this power. 
He will do this most effectively by teaching him how to work, 
how to study, and how to secure relaxation and rest. We are 
here considering the resting. 

Sleep. — (1) Perfect rest, either of body or mind, is found 
only in natural and profound sleep. Such sleep usually 
appears to be dreamless. So-called sleep, induced by drugs or 
other artificial means, lacks the curative and restorative power 
of natural sleep. It is now generally admitted that " brain- 
workers " need as much sleep as men engaged in hard manual 
labor. The average required, according to the best authori- 
ties, is about eight hours out of the twenty-four. A temporary 
gain may seem to be secured by reducing the hours of sleep, 
but the result, in the end, is usually a real loss. 

Physical exercises. — (2) Next to sleep, appropriate forms of 
physical exercise afford the best mental relaxation. Such 
exercises must be adapted to the age, to the condition of the 
body, to the previous habits of the individual, and to sur- 
rounding circumstances. The important consideration is that 
the form of exercise shall occupy the attention without severely 
taxing the mental powers. 

In school. — In the primary school lessons and physical 
exercise of some appropriate kind should alternate. Lessons 
should be short, full of energy and life, and so conducted as to 
command and absorb every thought and energy of the chil- 
dren. Equally absorbing periods of physical exercise should 
follow. Ill more advanced grades light gymnastics, calis- 
thenics, and other forms of exercise should be introduced as 
much as circumstances will permit. 



A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 61 

Alternation of studies.— (3) In all grades, but especially 
in the high school, mental relaxation and relief must be 
obtained by suitable alternation of studies. Provision must be 
made for such alternation in the program of recitations and 
other exercises. Opportunity should be given, as far as pos- 
sible, for the exercise in turn of the three typical modes of 
mental activity, the perceptive, the representative, and the 
thinking. 

Mathematics. — Mathematical studies, after the elementary 
stage is passed, call into exercise particularly the thinking 
processes of comparing, judging, and reasoning, together with 
some forms of representation. Tbey appeal very little to 
sense-perception. 

Sciences. — The natural and physical sciences, such as 
botany and physic?, when taught by modern methods, excite 
the activity of perception to a high degree, and do not tax the 
other powers severely, although the processes of classification 
are constantly carried on. 

Geography and history. — Geography and history appeal 
primarily to the representative powers, simple conception, 
imagination and memory. "When taught, in advanced classes, 
with reference to causes, consequences, and the broad general- 
izations, they exercise the thinking powers very fully. Per- 
ception is not much exercised. 

Reading and language. — Reading, language, and literature 
exercise in a marked degree conception, imagination, judg- 
ment, and taste, which is a form of judgment with an inter- 
mingling of emotion and other feelings. 

Order of recitation. — Keeping in view the mental activities 
exercised by the different branches of study, it will be easy to 



62 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

provide for the necessary alternations of psychical action. 
The order in a program may be greatly varied. It may be 
reading, arithmetic, grammar; or mathematics, science, lan- 
guage, as geometry, zoology or botany, Latin or literature, or 
any one of several other possible arrangements. As a rule, 
studies which demand vigorous and protracted thinking, and 
very close and accurate analysis, should be placed in the early 
part of the day; and those lessons which require only a moder- 
ate degree of mental exertion and allow considerable exercise 
of body, should be placed near the close of the day. Yet the 
diflScult and the easy, the heavy and the light should be inter- 
spersed, to some extent, throughout the entire program. 

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER IV. 

1. Method defined, methods ia teaching. 

2. What determines method3. Illustration. 

3. What the true teacher does. 

4. General forms of mental activity. 

5. Special forms of mental activity. 

6. General laws of mind and of teaching. 

7. First law of mind; first law of teaching. 

8. Second law of mind; second law of teaching. 

9. What analysis is; what synthesis is. 

10. How the senses present knowledge to the mind. 

11. Examples of the action of the senses. 

12. How the young child gets knowledge at home. 

13. Hamilton's statements; caution. 

14. Illustrations of the application of these laws to teaching 
reading, language, etc. 

15. Meaning of the maxim : " Proceed from the known to 
the unknown." 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 63 

16. Steps in teaching primary reading. 

17. Steps in teaching language. 

18. What the productive work is. 

19. Third law of mind; third law of teaching. 

20. Laws of association. What the third law covers. 

21. Upon what the power of memory depends. 
32. Upon what depth of impression depends. 

23. Suggestions as to attention. 

24. How associations of objects and ideas are formed. 

25. Laws of association used in primary arithmetic; in read- 
ing and language; in geography and history. 

26. Fourth law of mind ; fourth law of teaching. 

27. As to rules for length of lessons. Points to be con- 
sidered. 

28. Assignment of lessons. 

29. Importance of mental rest and relaxation. 

30. Sleep ; physical exercises ; alternation of studies. 

31. Mental activities exercised in the study of mathematics; 
of sciences; of geography and history ; of reading and language. 

32. Suggested order of studies in a program. 



CHAPTER V. 

INSTRUCTION OR TEACHING AND TRAINING. 
CONTINUED. 

Special laws of mind and of teaching. — As previously 
indicated, each period of life has some forms of mental 
activity peculiar to itself. These different forms appear 
at all periods indeed, but do not exhibit the same rela- 



64 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



tive degree of prominence and vigor. Statements of these 
forms of activity give us what may be called subordinate or 
special laws of mind; and inferences from these laws of mind 
afford subordinate or special laivs of teaching. These special 
laws of teaching include the substance of many of the so- 
called, " educational maxims," some of which are found as far 
back as the time of Comenius. Harm has been done, in some 
cases, by efforts to elevate these subordinate laws or maxims 
to the rank and position of universal or general truths. 

Correlated laws.— As a matter of convenience, and also as 
an aid to the memory, several of these laws, both of mind and 
of teaching, are here presented in two correlated parts, one 
part referring to an earlier the other to a later period of men- 
tal development. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MIND. 

1. (a) In his early learning 
the child must begin with the 
concrete, that is, with objects, 
acts and qualities; these cause 
the production of ideas; words 
are then needed as signs, to 
name and describe the objects 
and ideas. The order is (1) 
objects, (3) ideas, (3) words. 

(6) Later, when words and 
the things which they signify 
have become thoroughly asso- 
ciated, the learner begins, in 
many cases, with words, as the 
signs of things. These cause 
the production in the mind of 



SPECIAL LAWS OF TEACHING. 

1. (a; In teaching young 
children the teacher should 
begin with the concrete, that 
is, with objects, acts and quali- 
ties ; should excite curiosity 
and help the production of 
ideas; should then teach words, 
as signs, to name and describe 
the objects and ideas. 

(b) In later periods, when 
words and the things which 
they signify have become asso- 
ciated, the teacher should be- 
gin, in many cases, with 
words, and through these se- 
cure the formation of correct 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 65 



images, pictures, or ideas of 
whatever the words signify. 
This state of mind is naturally 
folio wed by the proper expres- 
sion and description of these 
images and ideas. 



mental images, pictures, or 
ideas of whatever the words 
sigaify, and then guide the 
pupil in the proper expression 
or description of these images 
and ideas. 



The first part of these laws refers to the strictly elementary 
period of the child's school life. To this period such maxims 
as the following apply: From the concrete to the abstract. 
Things before icords. The second maxim should be amended 
to read. Things and words. One leading purpose of the 
teacher, at this stage, is to render the association between 
objects, ideas, and words so perfect that either will enable the 
child to recall the others instantly. The child is learning 
mainly through his senses, and the teaching must be directed 
Accordingly. 

Object teaching.— Object teaching belongs here, and also 
objective teaching. The two should be carefully distinguished. 
The first is teaching objects themselves, their names, their 
parts, of what they are composed, their uses, and whatever 
may be of interest or value concerning them. 

Objective teaching. — Objective teaching, on the other hand, 
makes use of objects merely as convenient means of reaching 
some desired end, as when numbers are taught by the use of 
sticks, crayons, pebbles or any other things which can be 
handled and counted, or geography is taught by the use of 
sand or clay. Objective teaching may bs profitably employed 
in all branches of study in the primary grades, and in some 
branches in the higher grades. 

Use of object lessons. — Object lessons, properly conducted, 



66 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

are especially valuable for developing and training the activity 
of the senses, and for creating the habit of observing. No 
power of the mind is developed and trained except by fitting 
exercise. In order to secure such exercise means and oppor- 
tunities must be supplied. The senses can be trained only by 
giving them something to do. The eye learns to see by seeing; 
the ear by hearing; and the other senses become skillful in 
their peculiar work by doing it. The same law holds true in 
all manual training. But proper instruction and direction 
are necessary in all cases, Both the senses and the hands need 
to be guided. It is the teacher's business to give the proper 
instruction, direction, and guic'ance. So much being granted, 
the maxim of Comenius is true : ''Let things that have to be 
done be learned by doing them.'' 

Bad object lessons. — Object lessons may be so conducted as. 
to be worse than useless. This is the case when children are 
required to learn and repeat, in a mechanical way, long lists 
of names of parts, qualities, characteristics, and uses of 
objects, all of which they know before entering school. So 
far from cultivating and quickening the activity of the 
senses, this method of teaching really tends to produce 
"artificial stupidity," the senses are dulled by it. 

Children must use their own senses.— Children must be 
allowed to see, hear, taste, smell, and touch for themselves, 
and not be taught simply to repeat what the teacher sees and 
hears. But they should be so directed that they will learn to 
observe with order, regularity, accuracy, and finally with 
rapidity. Beginning with objects of which the children have 
some general but very indefinite knowledge, the genuine 
teacher will lead her pupils to discover for themselves parts, 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 67 

qualities, characteristics, and other peculiarities which have 
hitherto entirely escaped their hasty and careless notice. An 
old object is thus transformed into a new one, and invested 
with a species of enchantment. The common-place world, in 
which the children have been living, is suddenly changed 
into a world of wonders, marvels, and charms at the skillful 
touch of an inspiring teacher. The value of this work does 
not consist in the little knowledge gained by +>he pupils, but 
in the acquired power of perceiving and in the acquired habit 
of accurate and rapid observation. 

Final result. — The final result is that the child comes to 
observe almost or quite unconsciously; he sees and hears with- 
out effort, and thus acquires a vast amount of useful and 
interesting knowledge with no expenditure of time or labor, 
and with positive and constantly increasing pleasure. This is 
the development and training of the perceptive powers ; the 
opening of the gate-ways of the soul ; the bringing of the 
mind and of the material of knowledge face to face, which 
constitutes, as previously stated, real teaching. This is Mr. 
Page's " waking up the mind." 

Some questions on observation.— How many young people, 
even teachers, who have lived all their lives in the country, 
surrounded with trees, fruits, and flowers, can draw or 
describe the forms of the leaves of the different kinds of trees ? 
can tell the names of the common flowers by the roadside? or 
how many petals the apple or pear blossom has? or what 
the uses of the corn tassels are? or how new varieties of 
potatoes are produced? 

Examples of concrete lessons. — Concrete teaching may be 
extended with great profit and interest far beyond the use of 



68 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

simple objects in giving the first lessons in numbers. Older 
children are fond of concrete examples in arithmetic. A class 
may be set to measuring the floor of the school-room and to 
determining the number of square feet in it; the same may 
be done in respect to the sides and ceiling of the room. The 
number of cubic feet contained in the room may be calculated, 
and the number of cubic feet for each scholar. Thes3 and 
similar problems have an interest for pupils which mere 
abstract questions do not possess. 

More examples. — At different seasons of the year questions 
relating to familiar matters may b9 suggested. For example, 
pupils a little advanced in arithmetic may be asked to deter- 
mine the number of stalks of wheat on an acre of ground, 
being instructed to count the stalks on a tew square feet in 
different parts of the field so as to ascertain the average 
number on one square foot. In the same way the number of 
hills of corn on an acre may be calculated, or the number of 
forest trees on a certain number of acres. Such examples 
may be multiplied almost indefinitely in a farming district. In 
a lumber region a different class of examples would naturally 
be devised, and in a mining section still a different sort, and 
SD on, the particular examples being varied according to 
conditions and surroundings, 

Spelling Lessons.— Lessons in spelling may frequently be 
made from objects, by taking the name of an object, the 
names of the parts, words denoting the uses of the object, and 
other words suggested by the object or associated with it. 
Such lessons may be made lessons in language as well as in 
spelling. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 69 

Second part of these laws. — The second part of these laws 
refers to the work of the secondary stage of learning and 
teaching. However, it must always be kept in mind that 
the transition of the ahild from one period to the next is 
very gradual. Consequently the method of teaching must be 
changed very gradually. Little by little the object and objec- 
tive methods must give place to methods which address the 
conceptive or representative powers more directly. Pupils 
are now prepared to use books; and the order of progress is 
(1) words, (2) ideas, and (3) expression, while in the first 
period the order was (1) objects, (2) ideas, and (3) words. 

The order in reading. — The order is illustrated by the les- 
sons in reading after children begin the use of the second 
reader. The printed words, as the pupils look upon the page, 
cause the production in the mind of images, pictures, ideas, 
representations of the objects, acts, persons, and so forth, of 
which the words are signs or symbols. These mental ideas, 
images, and pictures are expressed or described in the vocal 
reading by the tones, inflections, and emphasis employed by 
the readers. The character of the reading will show whether 
the representations in the mind are correct and distinct. A 
hook camiot he used with advantage until such representations 
can he readily and accurately formed. 

Order in language lessons. — This order is also observed in 
language lessons when the teacher reads or relates some story 
and requires the members of a class to reproduce the sub- 
stance of it in writing. In this case the spoken words cause 
the formation of the mental representations which are then 
expressed by written words. 



70 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

Different modes of expression.— The expression is not 
always by words. It may be by acts or by signs of various 
kinds. For example, the teacher says to a child, ''Please 
bring me your reading book;" the child does as requested. 
The act is an expression of the ideas produced in the mind 
by the teacher's words, and could not have been performed 
correctly if the representations had not been correctly formed. 

In arithmetic. — An example in arithmetic is read; a pupil 
goes to the blackboard and places upon it a number of figures 
and other characters. This work is an expression of the ideas 
caused by the reading, and the work will indicate what sort 
of ideas were formed. 

Representation begins early.— This process of mental repre- 
sentation begins at a very early period of the child's develop- 
ment, and the poiver to form correct and clear ideas, when words 
or other signs are used, should be cultivated as carefully and 
diligently as the perceptive powers when objects are employed. 
It is possible to use the object and objective methods of 
instruction too long. The child in that case becomes accus- 
tomed to depend too much upon perception for his mental 
notions. The power to form mental pictures from words is 
not called into activity, and consequently is not developed. 
The result is that memory, conception, and imagination are 
retarded in their growth, and sometimes permanent injury is 
inflicted upon the mind. 



II. The Second Law. 

a. The young child proceeds 
in its learning, fqr the most 
part, inductively; that is, from 
individuals to classes, and 



II. 

a. The teacher of young 
children should proceed, for 
the most part, inductively; 
that is from individuals to 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



71 



from particular cases and ex- 
amples to general truths and 
principles. 

b. In later periods the 
learner proceeds, in many 
cases, deductively; that is, 
from classes to individuals, 
and from general truths and 
principles to particular cases 
and examples. 



classes, and from particular 
cases and examples to general 
truths and principles. 

b. The teacher of advanced 
classes should, in many cases, 
proceed deductively; that is, 
from classes to individuals, 
and from general truths and 
principles to particular cases 
and examples. 



For the purpose of emphasizing certain points of special 
importance a third law is added, although it is virtually in- 
cluded in the second, and will be discussed in connection with 
that law. 



III. Third Law. 

a. The child naturally see ks 
to learn facts, events, pro- 
cesses, examples and so on, 
before he is interested in study- 
ing causes, reasons, conse- 
quences, rules, definitions and 
principles ; and he learns 
language before the laws of 
language, that is, before gram- 
mar. 

b. After the thinking and 
reasoning powers have become 
considerably developed, the 
student naturally seeks to 
commence the stud 7 of many 
subjects with statements of 
rules, definitions, principles, 



III. 

a. The teacher should pre- 
sent facts, events, processes, 
examples, and so on, to chil- 
dren bsfore requiring them to 
study causes, reasons, conse- 
quences, rules, definitions, and 
principles; and should teach 
languages before the laws of 
language, that is, before 
grammar. 

b. In giving instruction to 
advanced scholars the teacher 
may often begin with state- 
ments of rules, definitions, 
principles, and hypotheses, and 
then proceed to investigate, 
explain, and illustrate the 



72 A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



and hypotheses, and then goes 
on to investigate and discover 
the application of these, tie 
also commences the study of 
new languages by applying', as 
far as possible, the laws and 
principles of languages already 
learned, that is, with gram- 
mar. 



various applications of these, 
and the inferences and deduc- 
tions from them. He should 
also commence instruction in 
new languages by applying, 
as far as possible, the laws and 
principles of languages which 
the student knows, that is, 
with grammar. 



Applications of the second and third laws. — The applica- 
tions of the second and third laws to methods of teaching 
particular subjects will be readily understood by almost any- 
one, and they will not, therefore, require very extended illus- 
trations. The young child, at jBrst, knows only individuals, 
and can have no conception of classes. It is true he uses gen- 
eral terms, such as boy, man, dog, horse, but he employs 
these, for considerable time, only as names of individuals. 
Very gradually, but probably somewhat earlier than we have 
been accustomed to suppose, the child begins to form con- 
fused notions of classes of things, such as are indicated by 
common nouns, like fruit, flower, animal and tree. He 
then commences to make generalizations, often very crude, 
and sometimes amusing, 

First ideas of classes of objects. — The child's earliest ideas 
of classes of objects are probably obtained by a process of 
elimination; that is by putting aside or out of view, one by 
one, characteristics which belong to single individuals, and 
by retaining and combining the characteristics which are 
discovered to be common to a large number of individuals. 
If this be true, it indicates the method which the teacher 
should adopt in the school. For example, suppose a child 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 73 

sees an apple for the first time, and that this particular apple is 
red. The word apple now means to the child only this one red 
apple. Suppose to-morrow a yellow apple is brought to the child, 
and afterwards a green apple, and then others of variegated 
colors. Gradually the notion of any particular color is 
eliminated from the idea expressed by the general term apple. 
By a similar process the notion of any particular size, or of 
any specific taste will be removed, and only a few character- 
istics will remain included in the idea or general notion of an 
apple. 

Induction. — Induction is the process by which we reach 
general truths, laws, and rules by examining a considerable 
number of individual things, cases, or examples. The mind 
naturally follows this method, and the teacher should adopt 
it in leading children to discover and formulate rules in 
arithmetic, grammar, and other common studies. A rule in 
arithmetic is usually nothing more than a concise description 
of a process; in grammar a rule is usually merely a brief 
statement of a general truth in respect to the arrangement or 
form of words. 

Examples of induction.— The process by which a child 
reaches a general truth may be easily illustrated by reference 
to some of the things with which children are supposed to be 
well acquainted. 

Ask a child how many petals an apple blossom has; he will 
examine a few blossoms, plucked from half a dozen different 
trees, and answer without hesitation five. Inquire how 
many seed cells the apple has, and he will arrive at his con- 
clusion by the same method. In all such cases children 
reason correctly, although the process is probably almost 



74 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

unconscious. In the school they will frequently need to be 
guarded against the danger of drawing conclusions too hastily 
and from an examination of an insufficient number of 
individuals. 

In arithmetic— In elementary work in arithmetic the 
teacher should require a pupil to " do" a considerable number 
of similar problems, to examine with great care the process 
in each case, and then to formulate a rule for all problems of 
the same kind. 

Essentially the same method should be employed in more 
advanced classes in mathematics, and m all other studies, 
until the most important general truths and rules have been 
mastered. 

Processes before reasons.— Children, from the very nature 
of their minds, will learn to do many things in certain 
branches of study, and will find great pleasure in doing them, 
long before they can fully and clearly understand the reasons 
for the processes which they employ. They can discover a 
rule, and can work by the rule, while unable to comprehend 
the principle upon which the rule depends. At this stage of 
their development and progress, it is unwise to attempt to 
teach them to repeat in a parrot-like way explanations and 
principles which have no meaning to them. Require reasons 
so far and only so far as they are capable of giving them 
understandingly. 

Deduction.— When general principles have baen learned 
by induction, and definitions and rules have been mast^ed, 
the method of teaching, in many cases, will naturally be 
changed. The principle, the definition, or the rule, becomes 
the starting point. The method is now deductive. Deduction 



A PRIMEK OF PEDAGOGY. 75 

is the process of applying general principles, definitions, and 
rules, to particular cases and individual examples. 

Illustrations. — For illustration, as soon as a pupil has 
thoroughly learned the rules of addition, subtraction, multi- 
plication,, and division, he has only to apply these to the 
solution of any new problem which is given to him. The 
inductive processes are no longer necessary. The same is 
true in the study of language, and indeed in all studies. 

The deductive method is especially employed in all branches 
where the work is largely classification, as in botany and 
zoology. The characteristics of great families or classes are 
first learned, and these characteristics are then used in deter- 
mining what individual plants, flowers, or animals are, and 
where they belong in the vegetable or animal kingdom. 

Both methods employed constantly. — While elementary 
methods are mostly inductive, and advanced methods are 
largely deductive, yet both induction and deduction are con- 
stantly used in every grade of a school and in almost every 
class and study. Frequently both are employed in the same 
lesson, induction being first used to reach some general law 
or rule, and then deduction in applying this law or rule to 
special cases and examples. 

Language before grammar. — The third special law re- 
quires language to be taught before gram.mar. Under one of 
the general laws some suggestions were made for teaching 
language lessons. A few suggestion will be added here in 
respect to the very earliest instruction in language to the 
youngest children. Next to the training of the senses the most 
important work of the primary teacher is the training of her 



76 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

pupils to use language correctly and readily. Children learn 
their first lessons in language by imitation. They repeat what 
they hear. Forms of speech, acquired before entering school, 
cling to them through all after life. If these forms are correct 
the teacher's task is comparatively easy; if they are bad her 
work is much more difficult. 

Suggestions. — (1) First of all, the teacher's language 
should he good, grammatically correct, and worthy of imita- 
tion. This is of vital importance. The teacher's conversa- 
tions with the children, her remarks to classes and to the 
school are so many continuous lessons in language; they are 
more effective than all other lessons. 

(2) Next to this in importance is the correction of any bad 
habits of speech which the childrenmay have already acquired. 
This should be done in such a way as not to wound their sen- 
sibilities, or to give the impression that the teacher takes 
pleasure in criticising them. 

(3) In recitations and in all formal school exercises be sure 
that a child has clear and distinct ideas before he tries to ex- 
press them. The expression of an idea or thought can never, 
unless by some mere chance, be clearer or more distinct than 
the idea or thought as represented in the mind. Confusion of 
language necessarily follows confusion of thought. An ob- 
ject seen indistinctly can be described only vaguely. A child 
should not be allowed to describe an object of perception 
until he has observed it so fully and carefully that he knows 
exactly what he wishes and intends to say. The same re- 
quirement should be made when questions are put which call 
for the mental act of representation. This requirement will 
interfere a little at first with the liveliness of a recitation or 



A PKIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 77 

other exercise, but in the end progress will be more rapid . 

Imperfect representation and its causes — During the early- 
period of the representative stage of a child's school life there 
is great danger of confusion of ideas in his mind, and of con- 
sequent incorrectness in the use of words. A story is told, or 
a narrative is read, and the pupil is required to reproduce the 
story or the narrative in his own language. Failure in the repro- 
duction may result from the fact that the language used in 
telling the story is not understood by the child. In this case 
the pupil can form no mental pictures, because the words 
suggest nothing. Consequently he has nothing to reproduce. 

Failure to reproduce may have another cause. The pupil 
may understand the language employed and may form 
correct ideas, but his vocabulary, aside from the words used 
by the teacher in telling the story, may be so limited that he 
is unable to express these ideas correctly in other words of his 
own selection. 

(4) Consequently at this stage of school life a teacher 
should take great care that right words be taught to children 
as they are needed by them. Every new object or idea calls 
for a new word. The word will be easily remembered if it is 
taught in connection with that of which it is the sign ; the 
natural order is " things and words^ 

Words to be taught. — The words taught to young children 
should be short, plain, every-day words, readily understood and 
easy of utterance. Train scholars to use just enough words 
to express their ideas clearly and fully, but no more than are 
needed to do this. In this matter the teacher should afford an 
example worthy of imitation. Do not fall into the habit of 
" talking much and saying little." 



78 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 

Technical terms.— The general rule as to the selection of 
short, simple, every-day words for the use of children, should 
not be pressed to an unreasonable extreme. It is not neces- 
sary, nor is it desirable, to avoid the use of all technical terms 
in early instruction. Such terms should not be employed 
unnecessarily, or too freely, but there is no sufficient reason 
for excluding them entirely. Oral and all early teaching 
should prepare pupils to use text-books. Some previous 
knowledge of language of books will help the pupil greatly 
when he commences to use them. 

(5) Finally, give young children much practice in the use of 
correct forms of expression. 

The end to be reached.— The end desired is the formation 
of a habit of employing good language. Habit is formed 
only by long continued practice. Sentences properly arranged 
must be spoken over and over again, must be written repeat- 
edly, until the sounds and forms become so familiar that the 
tongue utters them and the fingers write them almost auto- 
matically. Training in this matter should begin in the 
lowest classes and should be continued systematically through 
all the primary grades. 

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER V. 

1. Each period of development has its own peculiar forms 
of mental activity. 

2. Subordinate or special laws of mind and of teaching. 

3. First special law of mind and corresponding law of 
teaching. 

4. Some maxims applicable to the early period of school life. 

5. One leading purpose at this time. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 79 

6. What object teaching is, and what objective teaching is. 

7. Use of object lessons. 

8. Bad object lessons. 

9. How children should be taught to observe. 

10. Effect of good object teaching. 

11. Some questions as to observing. 

12. Examples of concrete lessons in arithmetic. 

13. Concrete spelling lessons. 

14. To what stage of learning the second part of the first law 
applies. 

15. Order of progress in each stage. 

16. Illustration from work in reading. 

17. Order in language lessons. 

18. Different modes of expression. 

19. When representation commences. 

20. Second special law of mind, and of teaching. 

21. Third special law of mind, and of teaching. 

22. Applications of these laws. 

23. How a child probably forms his earliest ideas of classes 
of objects. 

24. Induction defined and examples. 

25. Induction in arithmetic. 

26. Processes before reasons, etc. 

27. Deduction defined and illustrated. 

28. Both methods constantly employed. 

29. Language before grammar. Importance of training in 
language. 

30. Suggestions for elementary training in language. 

31. Causes of imperfect representation on the part of young 
children, and of imperfect reproduction. 

32. Kind of words to be taught. Technical terms. 



80 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

CHAPTER VI. 

SUGGESTIVE APPLICATIONS OF LAWS OF MIND. 

Previous applications of laws. — In previous chapters 
applications of some laws of mind to the teaching of several 
elementary studies were indicated as fully as space would 
permit. These examples were designed /toj suggest how 
teachers may make applications of these laws for themselves. 
It is better for teachers to do this than to imitate and follow 
altogether models given by others. No one can become em- 
inently successful in teaching unless she does something more 
than merely strive to imitate another teacher. Every per- 
son has, or should have, some individuality. The highest 
success will be obtained by first mastering principles and laws 
and then applying these according to one's own individual 
peculiarities, habits of thought, and modes of action. One 
never acquires freedom of movement or a graceful gait by 
trying to walk exactly in the footsteps of another, however easy 
and graceful the movement and gait of that other may be . 
Seek to improve and make the most of yourself, but do not 
mate an effort to become somebody else, Succiss is not in 
that direction. 

Other applications. — For the benefit of inexperienced 
teachers a few additional applications ot laws of mind and 
teaching are given here, simply to indicate ihe general char- 
acter of such applications, and some things which must be 
considered in making them. 

First thing. — First of all, before commencing to teach any 
subject, determine exactly what you propose to do, the end 



A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 81 

which you expect to reach, and fix in your own mind clearly 
and in regular order the successive steps by which that end is 
to be reached. Unless this is done you will work at random, 
wasting your own time and also that of your pupils. In 
determining what is to be done, or what should be attempted, 
the age and degree of development and intelligence of scholars 
must be taken into account. The maxim, " from the known 
to the unknown " should be kept in mind, because the present 
knowledge of the child must be the starting point in the effort 
to lead him to acquire that which is now the unknown. 

Second thing.— Having done this, next state to yourself 
distinctly the laws of mind and of teaching which are to guide 
you in the luork, and are to determine the particular methods 
to be employed. 

The general laws will always be applicable, and are to be 
kept in mind in all cases. Some whole is to be presented, 
although it may be only a small part of some greater whole. 
The processes of thinking, by which knowledge is rendered 
clear and definite, must be regarded and provided for ; and 
the laws of association must be constantly employed so as to 
render retention and reproduction sure and easy. 

Special laws to be determined. — What needs to be deter- 
mined therefore is, what special or subordinate laws of mind 
and of teaching apply to the matter in hand. In order to 
determine this, it is necessary to consider the age and degree 
of intelligence of pupils; whether they are in the primary or 
in a more advanced stage of development ; whether they have 
or have not some knowledge of subject to be presented. 

An illustration. — For an illustration let us apply these sug- 
gestions to the teaching of 



82 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



The end or purpose. — Suppose the pupils to belong to a 
district school or to some of the intermediate grades of a 
larger school. What is the end or object to be attained? Let 
us agree that the purpose is this : To enable the scholars to 
obtain a good degree of what may be called practical knowl- 
edge of our local, state, and national governments. It is not 
the intention to teach, except incidentally and to a very lim- 
ited extent, theories of government, or the principles upon 
which the various forms of government are founded. 

The laws. — What laws of mind and of teaching will guide 
us in the work? and when shall we commence? The most im- 
portant of the laws are these : In teaching young pupils, be- 
gin with the concrete ; begin with particular and specific cases ; 
begin with the known, that is, ivith that which is near at 
hand; begin with that tvhich ivill most naturally create 
interest and secure attention ; proceed, as far as loossible, in- 
ductively. If these laws are regarded it will be easy to decide 
where and how to commence. 

In district schools. — Suppose one is teaching in a district 
school, and that a school meeting has just been held, or is to 
be held soon, in which officers of the district are elected and 
other business is transacted. In this case begin instruction 
with the school district. We have here a concrete, specific 
example, near at hand, and adapted, if properly presented, to 
excite interest and secure attention Incidentally the nature 
of democratic government, a government in which all the 
people take part, can be shown ; and also the nature of repre- 
sentative government, since the school board act for and in 
behalf of the people, and thus represent them. Instruction is 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 83 

supposed to be oral. Do not hasten ; take points one by- 
one ; state questions clearly, and allow pupils to find out 
things for themselves, as far as possible, by inquiring of their 
parents and other persons. In this way the organization of 
the district, its officers, the time and mode of their election, 
their duties as individuals and as a board can be taught so 
that the knowledge will be of practical value to the pupils 
and will be easily retained. 

In village or city. — If one is teaching in a village or in a 
city it will be natural to commence with the organization and 
government of the village or city, following the method 
indicated for the study of the district. 

The township, county, etc.— The transition from the dis- 
trict to the township can be readily made by inquiring about 
the boundaries of the district, and by whom these boundaries 
are fixed. These inquiries bring us to the township board of 
school inspectors and to the township organization. 

The oflicers of the township and their duties may be studied 
in the manner suggested for the study of the district. 
Additional interest will be excited if the township is studied 
near the time of the election of officers. 

From the township the passage will be easy to the county, 
and then to the state, and finally to the United States. 

If the government of the state is studied near the time of a 
state election it will be easy to give information in relation to 
the caucus, to the county and state conventions, and the 
business and management of these meetings. 

Law making, etc. — It will be an excellent time to study 
the Legislature when that body is in session. The whole 



84 A PEIMEK OF PEDAGOGY. 

process of law making can then be illustrated by reference to 
the proceedings of the Legislature. The progress of some bill, 
in which pupils may be interested, can be traced from its first 
introduction to its final passage, every step being carefully in- 
dicated from day to day. 

United States gcovernment. — The approach of a Presiden- 
tial election affords a most favorable opportunity for studying 
the government of the United States, since the election of 
members of Congress takes place at the same time. The 
election of United State Senators should be studied, if possible, 
in connection with a meeting of the State Legislature when 
the election of a senator takes place. This method makes the 
instruction as nearly concrete as it can be made unless pupils 
are able to be present at district, township, and other similar 
meetings. 

Method with advanced classes.— With classes of advanced 
pupils it will sometimes be wise to employ a different method, 
based upon such laws as these: commence with the largest 
possible whole, and go from the whole to its parts ; begin with 
the abstract, with general principles, with definitions ; with 
advanced pupils employ deduction. In this case, present first 
a general outline and then study its various parts, going into 
details as fully as circumstances permit. Begin with a 
definition of government with all necessary illustrations ; next 
define the various kinds of government, such as civil, military, 
monarchical, republican, representive, national, state, school, 
family. Then, taking the government of the United States, 
proceed to study one by one the different departments. From 
the national come to the state government, following the 
same general plan ; finally proceed to the county and the 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 85 

township. Where text-books are used this method will 
usually b8 employed. It will, however, be profitable to use 
the concrete method, to some extent, even in the most 
advanced grades. 

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 

It may be of advantage to suggest briefly what some of the 
laws of mind and of teaching indicate as to instruction in the 
subject of Unitea States History to pupils in district schools, 
and in the lower grades of larger schools. The work is neces- 
sarily elementary in its character, and methods adapted to ad- 
vanced classes are not appropriate here. Introductory out- 
lines and synopses are out of place. The whole of children, 
at this period, is a single event or a short series of closely re- 
lated events ; the adventures of one man or of a single body 
of men. 

In the end, by a natural process of induction and arrange- 
ment, many events may be grouped together and the relation 
of these events to each other may be discovered. 

Object to be attained.— The object may be stated thus: To 
enable pupils to gain and retain a knowledge of the most im - 
portant events in the history of the country. This will neces- 
sarily include a knowledge of the leading men who have 
acted in those events; a knowledge of discoveries and inven- 
tions in the arts and sciences ; of improvements in means of 
travel and transportation, and of the general progress of the 
country in all directions. It will not include the details of all 
the early voyages of discovery, nor all the incidents of the 
French and Indian wars, nor all the marches and counter- 
marches of armies in any of our wars. The unimportant and 
unessential must be omitted. 



86 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

Laws applicable. — Most of the laws named as applicable in 
teaching civil government will apply equally well in teaching 
the history. The concrete will b3 of a different sort, and more 
emphasis must be put upon the law that young children seek 
to learn facts, events, processes, and so on, before they care to 
study causes, reasons, relations, and consequences. 

First lessons in history.— The first lessons in history should 
be taught in connection with the elementary study of local 
geography. When a place is studied, anecdotes of men and 
events connected with the place should b3 related, in a brief, 
animated and interesting way, by the teacher or by some 
pupil. Topics of various kinds may be assigned beforehand to 
individual members of a class, and references rhay be given to 
books in which matter can be found. Progress in geography 
may seem to be Jess rapid, but real progress in knowlege will 
be much more rapid, and that which is learned will be re- 
tained by the natural law of association, that is, by the law of 
contiguity; places, events, and persons being all linked together 
in the mind. Men and events connected with many places are 
so numerous that selections must be made according to cir- 
cumstances, or according to the taste of the teacher. The 
story of Wolfe and Montcalm may be associated with Quebec ; 
of John Smith and Pocahontas with the James river ; of De- 
Soto with the lower Mississippi ; of Pero Marquette with the 
Great Lakes ; of the Conspiracy of Pontiac with Detroit. The 
only difficulty will be in making wise selections from the 
abundance of material. 

More formal lessons.— The next and more formal lessons 
in history for children should consist, very largely, of anec- 
dotes, of short stories of events and places, and of brief 



A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 87 

biographies of distinguished men. These must not be 
taken at random, but in some regular and chronological order, 
so they may finally be connected into a continuous series. 
This order need not necessarily be stated to the pupils, at the 
outset, but should be very clear in the teacher's mind. The 
method of working with a class must be adapted to circum- 
stances. If books are abundant, the members of a class may 
be required to read for themselves and to relate, either orally 
or in writing, the substance of what they have read. The 
teacher will then indicate the important portions of the stories 
which are to be fastened in the memory. If books are scarce, 
the teacher will read or relate the story, or appoint some good 
reader among the pupils to read, while the other members of 
the class listen and aferwards write out as much of the matter 
as they can recall, being guided by the teacher so that they 
will reproduce the essential parts. If a text-book is used, 
this work can be carried along in connection with lessons 
assigned from the book. This leads to a remark which may 
be next akin to educational treason : ivith a live and 
thoroughly prepared teacher the more different good text-books 
in the history class the better for the class. 

The lessons, of course, are assigned topically, and each 
pupil learns and states what his book contains upon a topic. 
In this way the whole class can have the substance of what 
all the books contain. When any topic has been fully studied 
the teacher should make a summary of the important points 
which pupils can copy in note books. At the end of the term 
of study these note books will furnish the connected substance 
of the history and will serve as means for review. 

Advanced teaching. — As in teaching civil government so in 



8b A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

teaching history the laws of mind indicate that the class may 
commence by learning a general outline. This outline serves 
in the history the purpose which the outline map serves in 
geography. This method is so familiar that it is unnecessary 
to discribe it further. 

These examples are sufficient to illustrate the applications 
which teachers may make for themselves of both the general 
and special laws of mind and teaching. 

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VI. , 

1. Previous applications of laws of mind. 

2. How the highest success will be attained by a teacher. 

3. First thing to be determined before commencing any 
subject. 

4. Second thing to be distinctly stated. 

5. What as to general laws. 

6. What as to special law?. 

7. The illustration of civil government. 

8. The end or purpose in this case. 

9. The guiding laws or principles. 

10. How begin and proceed in a district school. 

11. How begin in a village or city. 

12. How interest may be increased. 

13. When law-making may be best studied. 

14. When the government of the United States may be best 
studied. 

15. Method with advanced classes. 

16. Laws applied to teaching U. S. History. 

17. Object to be attained with elementary classes. 

18. Law specially applicable. 

19. First lessons in history. 

20. More formal lessons. 



A PRI^klER OF PEDAGOGY. 89 



21. Method of working in a class. 

22. As to text-books. 

23. Method with advanced classes. 

24. Use of these illuatrations. 



CHAPTER VII. 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT, INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING. 

The moral nature. — For our purpose it will be suflficiently 
definite to consider the moral nature as that in man which 
concerns itself about questions of right and ivrong It makes 
such inquiries as these: Ought a child to obey his parents ? 
ought parents to care for, to protect, to educate their children ? 
ought scholars to be obedient to the rules of a school ? ought 
a teacher to labor earnestly for the highest good of his pupils ? 
ought a man to be honest in business ? is it ever right to lie, 
to cheat, to take advantage of another's ignorance in a trade ? 
These and many other similar questions men are constantly 
asking themselves. Children begin to ask such questions at a 
very early period in their lives. 

Idea of right. — The fact that such inquiries are made by 
all sorts of people in all parts of the world, seems to prove 
that human beings everywhere have an idea that there is such 
a thing as right and such a thing as wrong. This idea is 
probably intuitive in the soul ; that is, it springs up sponta- 
neously in the mind as soon as a child is old enough to think 
with some degree of clearness, to act with reference to some 
end, to observe the conduct of others, and to understand, in 
some measure, the consequences of his own conduct and of 



90 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

the conduct of those about him. The child's earliest notions of 
right and wrong are, without doubt, very crude and ill-de- 
fined. Gradually, if properly instructed and trained, he comes 
to have more definite ideas, and begins to feel that he ought to 
do one thing in preference to another, and that he may properly 
be blamed for one sort of conduct and praised for a different 
sort. In other words he begins 1 3 comprehend the fact that 
there is some rule or law concerning behavior, and that his 
conduct should conform to this law. 

Moral law. — At this stage of development the child has a 
dim and confused notion of what we call moral law ; which, 
for our present purpose, may be defined as a collection of prin- 
ciples and rules for the regulation of the conduct of human 
beings in all the various relations of life. The most import- 
ant and essential of these principles are very nearly, if not 
quite, axioms or self evident truths. Men everywhere admit 
them to be true, even though they disregard them in their 
manner of living. 

First principle. — One of these principles may be stated 
thus : Oive to every man his due, or render to every man his 
right. This requires us to give to every human being that 
which belongs to him ; honor to whom honor is due ; obedi- 
ence to whom obedience is due ; respect to whom respect is 
due ; courtesy, kindness, protection, good- will, love, to whom 
these are due. This law touches all the ordinary relations in 
the family, in the school, in society, in business, in the state. It 
is broad enough to regulate to a large extent the conduct of 
children, of parents, of scholars, of teachers, and of men and 
women in all social, business and other relations. This law 
asks only justice; it is the basis of human society. Without 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 91 

some tolerable regard for it men could not associate together. 
Nobody will object to teachmg this principle in the public 
schools, or in any other place. 

Second principle. — Another of these laws may be em- 
bodied in this language : " Do unto others as you would have 
them do unto you " in like conditions and circumstances. In 
other words, put yourself in another's place and consider how 
you would wish to be treated in that place. This rule carries 
one far beyond the requirements of simple justice. It bids 
us do good to all men as far as we are able ; to forgive those 
who have wronged us ; to have compassion on the suffering ; 
to pity the weak and erring ; to help those who need help 
even though they have no claims upon us ; in a word, to do 
all in our power to make others better and to render them 
happier. 

Law of beneficence. — This is the law of beneficence and 
good-will, applied once by a Samaritan to an unfortunate 
individual belonging to a race which despised and hated him. 
Fully recognized, it forbids us to render evil for evil ; to return 
a harsh word for one which we have received ; "to give " a 
bad man or boy " as good as he has sent," or " pay him back 
in his own coin." This does not forbid the using of proper 
measures in self defence, nor the infliction of proper chas- 
tisement upon any overbearing " bully " who recognizes no 
authority unless it is backed by brute force, and respects only 
«vhat he fears. 

How much embraced. — These two principles embrace the 
whole moral law so far as it applies to human relations. 
They teach justice, benevolence, mercy, and forgiveness. 
Obedience to them would make the family, the school, society 



92 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

generally, and the state what they should be ; would render 
men honest, truthful, upright, honorable, and manly in the 
highest sense of that word. 

Purpose of moral instruction and training. — The purpose 
of moral instruction and training is to lead children to act 
constantly and uniformly in harmony with these laws. They 
will thus be made obedient to rightful authority in the home, 
in the school, and in the state. They will be taught truthful- 
ness in word and in deed, honesty in business and in pleasure 
purity in heart and in life, integrity in both private and public 
affairs. The natural tendency of such instruction and train- 
ing must be to send out from the schools good men and 
women, and to secure for the state good and reliable citizens. 

What the child must have. — In order to secure the proposed 
end the child must have (1) the necessary knowledge; that is he 
must be taught what he ought to do and how he ought to con- 
duct himself ; (3) he must have a right disposition ; that is, 
in some way, there must be produced in his mind the desire to 
do what he ought to do and to conduct himself in the right 
way. In connection with the production of this knowledge 
and this disposition in the child (3) he needs to acquire, by con- 
tinued practice, a permanent habit of right doing, so that good 
conduct shall become easy because it has become habitual. 
Practically the knowledge, the disposition, and the habit will 
be secured for the child at the same time and by the same 
process of instruction and training. 

How give instruction. — The necessary instruction as to 
right conduct can be given very easily by any teacher who 
thoroughly understands the principles of justice, beneficence, 
and mercy, and who earnestly desires to impress these upon 



A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 93 

the minds of his pupils. It must be remembered, in dealing 
with young children, that they are not yet able to comprehend 
abstract principles or abstract teaching. It would serve no 
good purpose to begin by telling them that they ought to be 
just and to act justly ; or that they should be beneficent and 
act beneficently : or that they should be merciful, and should 
deal mercifully with their associates. Such instruction may 
be appropriate in the high school, but not in the lower grades. 
The teaching here must be concrete. Justice and beneficence 
must be embodied and taught by means of living examples. 
Mercy and forgiveness must be presented in actual every-day 
life where they can be seen. 

First means. — Consequently, (1) ^rsif and most important 
of all, the teacher must teach the principles of right conduct 
by example, by his own daily living before his pupils. He 
must be a concrete illustration of justice and mercy, of benefi- 
cence and forgiveness. He must himself be just in word and 
deed in all his relations with school officers, with parents, 
and with scholar ;«. He will teach beneficence most effectively 
by his own beneficent acts and his own kind words. He will 
teach purity best by being pure in heart, pure in life and pure 
in language. He will teach honor by being honorable in all 
his dealings, and patience and forbearance by being patient 
and forbearing under circumstances naturally adapted to 
irritate and provoke. 

Unconscious tuition. — This is unconscious tuition, which 
has been so beautifully described and illustrated by Dr. Hunt- 
ington in an address which every teacher should read at least 
once a year. No other teaching can take the place of this, 
and no person is " qualified," in the best and highest sense of 



94 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

the word, for a place in the schoolroom, whose character and 
life do not teach the principles of justice and righteousness. 
Neither intellectual power nor brilliant scholarship can atone 
for bad moral principles and bad moral conduct and habits. 

Second means.— (2) Next to the teacher's own character, 
the best means of impressing moral lessons upon children are 
examples found in the conduct of associates and of others 
with whom pupils are personally acquainted. This is also 
concrete teaching. Such examples must be selected and 
employed with great care and skill, and in such a way as not 
to give offense or to excite ill-will. It will, when this can 
be done, be better to use an example ivhich can be held up as 
worthy of imitation rather than one worthy of censure and 
blame. This is preferable for many reasons which will readily 
occur to any teacher, but there is a psychological reason which 
is often overlooked. States of mind repeat themselves. A feel- 
ing excited in the child's mind today can be excited more 
easily to-morrow, and still more easily the third time. Every 
repetition increases the tendency of the mind to indulge the 
feeling until, by and by, it becomes habitual. It is, conse- 
quently, better for the child's character to excite feelings of 
kindness and good -will rather than those of unkindness and 
ill-will. It may be urged that it will be a good thing to culti- 
vate in a child the feeling of indignation against injustice and 
all wrong-doing. This is true after the child has reached a 
certain stage of development ; but it should be remembered 
that feeling in the young child is always directed towards the 
actor rather than the act, towards individuals rather than 
classes. 

Third means.— (3) Further opportunities for giving moral 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 95 

instruction can be found in connection with examples and 
illustrations aiforded by some of the selections in school 
readers, by anecdotes and other articles in newspapers and 
periodicals, and by many of the lessons in history. 

With advanced pupils.— (4) To advanced students more 
definite and formal statements of moral principles should be 
made, with applications of these to the conduct of every- 
day life. Care must be taken that such statements are pre- 
sented at proper times and under favorable conditions, and 
not in the form of regular lessens or lectures at appointed 
hours. 

The most difficult work. — The most difficult part of the 
teacher's work is to create or cause to he produced in the child's 
mind a disposition to do right, when he has learned what the 
right is, and to render this disposition permanent so that 
finally good conduct will become habitual. This is the end 
towards which effort should be directed. 

Upon what disposition depends. — The disposition depends 
upon the feelings which control the action of the will. Behind 
every determination of the will is some desire. The child is 
disposed to do what he wishes or desires to do. The problem, 
therefore, is to produce the right desire ; or if, as is often the 
case, there are opposing and conflicting desires, to give pre- 
dominance to the better ones. Anything which produces or 
tends to produce desire, and thus to move the will, may be 
called a motive. The practical questions for a teacher are, 
what motives shall I use, and how shall I use them to the 
best advantage? Only brief consideration can be given to 
these questions here, but every teacher should study them 
thoroughly. 



96 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

Desire and good,— Desire has been defined as the^craving 
of the mind for some real or supposed good. The term good 
is used to denote anything which will give gratification, 
pleasure, enjoyment, or satisfaction of some kind. Tne good 
of one person may not be the good of another ; the good of 
the child will not be the good of the man. The good to he 
presented, that is, the motive, must be adapted to the age of 
the person, to his degree of development and culture, and to 
circumstances. The good held up before a young child must 
be something near at hand, something which appeals to the 
senses, and to the simple emotions and affections, something 
which he can comprehend and appreciate. The far-oflf has 
little power to influence childhood. 

High and low motives. — The motive in each case may be 
considered low*or high according to the character of the 
pleasure and satisfaction which the object presented is adapted 
to afford. The pleasure may be of the body or of the soul, 
may be immediate or prospective, may be temporary or last- 
ing in its nature, may relate entirely to one's self or may con- 
cern others. The effort should he, in all cases, to employ the 
highest possible motive ; that is, the motive which will excite 
the best, noblest, and purest desires. As early as possible 
motives should be employed which will lead the child to 
have regard for others rather than for himself. 

Classes of motives.— Motives may be divided, for con- 
venience, into a few classes ; and in each class they may be 
arranged in an ascending series adapted to the progressive 
stages and steps of mental and moral development. 

Lowest class.— (1) The first and lowest motive which in- 
fluences the child is probably the pleasure arising from the 



A PBIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 97 

gratification of the natural appetites. The parent makes 
more or less use of this motive, but it can have little place in 
school. In more advanced periods of life this motive is rein- 
forced by the pleasure derived from the gratification of the 
passions and artificial appetites. This motive keeps man on a 
level with the brutes. 

Approval, etc. — (2) The satisfaction resulting from being 
approved, praised, esteemed, and commended is a powerful 
motive in childhood, and indeed during the whole life. The 
child values the approval of parents, teachers, associates, etc. 
When more developed, he values most of all the approval of 
his own conscience and of the Divine Being. 

Activity, etc.— (3) The pleasure and satisfaction derived 
from the proper exercise of one's own powers constitute a very 
strong motive in every period of life. Appropriate exercise 
of body gives positive pleasure to the child. Mental exercise 
affords still higher satisfaction. Probably the highest enjoy- 
ment of which man is susceptible comes from the right 
exercise of his highest and noblest powers. 

Possession, etc.— (4) The satisfaction resulting from pos- 
session is also a powerful motive, operating sometimes in the 
direction of good, sometimes in the direction of evil. This 
general motive embraces a great number of particular cases, 
such as the possession of knowledge, of property, of power, 
of rank, of esteem, and many others. Prizes and rewards 
appeal to this principle. 

Select motives. — From these various classes such motives 
should be selected in the school as are adapted to the different 
pupils. Always select the highest one which can be made 
effective. 

Lowest motive.— The lowest motive to which the teacher 
can appeal is the desire for present personal bodily gratifica- 
tion and pleasures. Corporal punishment appeals to this 
motive by exciting fear of pain. 

Highest motive. — The highest motive is the desire to do 

7 



98 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

right because it is right. This is duty in the best sense of the 
word. This involves the desire for the approval of one's own 
conscience and the approval of God. 

Character. — The final result of moral development, instruc- 
tion, and training in the school should be the production of the 
highest type of character in the pupils, character being the 
sum of the dispositions which have been created in the mind, 
and of the habits which manifest themselves in conduct. 

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VII. 

1. The moral nature defined. 

2. What questions are asked. 

3. Idea of right and wrong universal. 

4. A child's early ideas of right and wrong. 

5. What moral law is. 

6. The two general principles stated. 

7. What the principle of justice includes. 

8. What the principle of beneficence includes. 

9. The purpose of moral instruction and training. 

10. The things which the child must have. 

11. How instruction may be given. 

13. Why abstract principles should not be taught to young 
children. 

13. The means which can be used in moral teaching. 

14. What the teacher should be. 

15. Unconscious tuition. 

16. What sort of examples should be used and why. 

17. What may be done for advanced students. 

18. The most difiicult part of the work. 

19. Upon what disposition depends. 

20. What a motive is. 

21. Desire and good defined. 

22. High and low motives. 

23. Rule for the selection of motives. 

24. First class of motives ; second class ; third class ; fourth 
class. 

25. The lowest motive ; the highest motive. 

26. What the final result of moral development, instruction, 
and training should be. 

27. Character defined. 



A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 99 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. State the three questions which present themselves to 
one preparing for any work. 

2. Why do we value a machine or a road ? 

3. What is the real work of a teacher ? 

4. What should the education of a child include ? 

5. What does development produce ? 

6. What does training produce ? 

7. What should instruction produce? 

8. Give Tate's definition of education. 

9. What is Milton's definition ? 

10. Give the substance of Addisoa's statement. 

11. What does Plato say of doing ? 

13. Name the different varieties of education. 

13. What must one know in order to educate a child ? 

14. State the illustration of the trainer of horses. 

15. Describe the nervous system and the different kinds^f 
nerves. 

16. State the kind of knowledge which each one of the 
senses gives us. 

17. What is the mind ? 

18. What is consciousness ? 

19. State and illustrate the relation of consciousness and the 
senses. 

20. Where does the process of education begin ? 

21. What is perception as an act ? what as a power ? 

22. What is a percept ? give illustrations. 

23. Explain how we get the ideas of space and time. 

24. What is intuition ? 

25. Name and define the group of perceptive powers. 

26. Give examples and illustrations of the process of 
representation. 

27. Give examples of representation in the school. 

28. What are concepts ? how do they differ from percepts ? 

29. What is real representation ? 

30. What is ideal representation ? give illustrations. 

31. Illustrate the use and work of imagination in the school. 

32. Define memory. 

33. State and illustrate how the memory recalls. 

34. What are laws of association ? 

35. Name the primBry laws. 

36. Name the secondary laws. 

37. Name and define the group of conceptive or representa- 
tive powers'. 

38. What is thinking as here defined ? 



100 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

39. Define analysis, abstraction, and generalization. 

40. What is general conception ? what is a general concept ? 

41. What is the judgment ? what is a proposition ? 

42. Give an example of a reasoning process. 

43. Name and define the thinking powers. 

44. Give a synopsis of the knowing powers. 

45. What are bodily feelings ? appetites ? 

46. Name the three classes of mental feelings and define 
them. 

47. What is hope? 

48. Why is a knowledge of the feelings important to a 
teacher ? 

49. What is the will ? give an illustration of an act of the 
will. 

50. What is the order of the mental processes ? 

51. How can the teacher move or influence the will of a 
child ? 

52. What is a moral being ? 

53. Describe the moral nature ; intuition ; perception ; 
judgment ; conscience. 

54. Why should conscience be always obeyed ? 

55. Name some of the moral feelings. 

56. What are motives ? 

57. How can we increase or diminish the power of motives ? 

58. Are we free in our choosing ? 

59. Give the illustrations of development. 

60. Explain the use of the term law. 

61. Give the first law of development. 

62. State the order in which the powers are developed. 

63. What is the first inference from the first law ? 

64. Give the characteristics of each of the three periods of 
school life. 

65. To what powers of mind must teaching be directed in 
each of these periods ? 

66. State the second inference from the first law. 

67. State what the characteristics of each of the three 
classes of schools should be. 

68. State the third inference from the first law. 

69. Give the second law of development. 

70. What is the teacher's business under this law ? 

71. State the inference from the second law. 

72. What is the third law of development ? 

73. Give the first inference from the third law. 

74. What is the second relation of knowledge to education ? 

75. What is teaching ? and what is the teacher's work ? 



A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 101 

76. Who is the best teacher ? 

77. What is method ? what are methods of teaching ? 

78. What determines methods of teaching ? 

79. Give the illustration of the scientist. 

80. What does the real teacher do according to thi& 
illustration ? 

81. What is meant by general forms of mental activity? 
what by special forms ? 

82. What are general laws of mind ? 

83. State the iirst general law of mind, and the correspond- 
ing law of teaching ? 

84. State the second law of mind, and the corresponding 
law of teaching. 

85. How do the senses present knowledge ? give illustrations. 

86. Give illustrations of the analytic process of the mind. 

87. How is the child learning till he enters school ? 

88. What does Hamilton say of the work of elaboration? 

89. What is the substance of the caution? 

90. What methods of teaching elementary reading are^ 
mentioned ? which are synthetic and which analytic? 

91. Explain the maxim, " Proceed from the known to the 
unknown." 

93. What is the known to the child when beginning to 
learn to read? What is the unknown? 

93. What is the work of the first step in teachiog children 
to read? 

94. Explain the second step. 

95. What is the work of the third step? 

96. Explain the method of teaching language lessons accord- 
ing to these laws. 

97. Give the third law of mind, and the corresponding law 
of teaching. 

98. What work this third law covers. 

99. Upon what does the power of memory depend? 

100. Upon what does the depth of the impression depend? 

101. What illustration shows the effect of intense attention? 
what of repetition ? 

102. What are the suggestions in relation to attention? 

103. What is the second matter considered in the training of 
the memory? 

104. How can the different parts of a topic be best associated 
in the mind ? 

105. Give the illustration in respect to committing to mem- 
ory a number of names. 

106. What laws of association are used in teaching arithme- 
tic? 



102 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 



107. What laws in teaching to read ? 

108. What laws in teaching geography ? 

109. What laws in teaching history ? 

110. Upon what does all valuable training of the memory 
depend ? 

111. State the fourth general law of mind, and the corres- 
ponding law of teaching. 

113. Why can no definite rules be given as to the length of 
lessons ? 

113. What things must be taken into account in assigning 
essons? 

114. What is the prime condition of fruitful study ? 

115. What should be the aim of the student in his work 
What the aim of the teacher ? 

116. What is said in relation to sleep ? 

117. What is the most important consideration in physical 
exercise ? 

118. What should be done in primary schools in respect to 
physical exercise ? What in advanced grades ? 

119. Why should different kinds of studies alternate with 
one another ? 

120. What activities of mind are employed in studying 
mathematics ? 

131. What activities in studying the sciences ? what in geo- 
graphy and history ? what in reading and language ? 

133. What alternations of studies are suggested in a pro- 
gram ? 

133. What is meant by subordinate or special laws of mind ? 
by special laws of teaching ? 

134 State the first special law of mind, and the correspond- 
ing law of teaching. 

125. Name some "maxims " covered by this law. 

136. What is one leading purpose of the teacher in this early 
period of school life ? 

137. How does the child learn at this time ? 

128. State the distinction between object teaching and 
objective teaching. 

129. For what are object lessons valuable ? 

130. What are bad object lessons ? 

131. What are the characteristics of good observing ? 

132. What is it to develop and train the perceptive powers ? 

133. State some of the questions concerning the habit of 
observing. 

134. Give examples of concrete questions in arithmetic. 

135. Give examples of concrete spelling lessons. 



A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 103 

136. Why should methods of teaching be changed only 
gradually ? 

137. What is the order of a child's progress in the first stage ? 
what is the order in the second stage ? 

138. Illustrate the order in the second stage by reference to a 
reading lesson. 

139. State the order in a language lesson. 

140. Illustrate expression by other means than by words. 

141. What evil results from using the object and objective 
method of teaching too long ? 

142. State the second special law of mind, and second special 
law of teaching. 

143. State the third special law of mind, and of teaching. 

144. How does the young child probably obtain his earliest 
ideas of classes of objects ? Give an illustration. 

145. Define induction. Give examples. 

146. Give examples of induction in teaching arithmetic. 

147. Why may young children be allowed to "do " things 
for which they can not give reasons ? 

148. Define deduction. Give examples. 

149. Are there purely inductive and purely deductive 
methods of teaching ? 

150. Next to training the senses, what is the most important 
work of the primary teacher ? 

151. State the suggestions in relation to teaching language 
to young children. 

152. What kind of words should be taught to young children? 

153. May technical terms be taught? 

154. How only can a teacher become eminently successful ? 

155. What is the effect of imitation ? 

156. What should a teacher determine first before beginning 
any subject? 

157. What next should be determined ? 

158. How far do general laws apply ? 

159. What is the purpose stated in teaching civil govern- 
ment to young pupils ? 

160. What laws are given ? 

161. Where begin and how proceed in a district school ? 

162. Where begin in a village or city ? 

163. At what time may the township government be best 
studied. 

164. At what time the state government ? 

165. At what time the U. S. government ? 

166. Why best at these times ? 

167. State the method of teaching civil government in 
advanced classes. 



104 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 

168. Why should we not begin to teach history to children 
by using outlines ? 

169. State the object in teaching U. S. History to young 
children. 

170. What laws of mind are applicable ? 

171. What law is especially applicable ? 

172. How should the first lessons in history b3 taught ? 

173. Give illustrations. What are the advantages of this 
method ? 

174. What are the more formal lessons ? 

175. What advantage in having a variety of text- books ? 

176. How may advanced classes be taught ? 

177. What is the purpose in giving these applications of 
mental laws and laws of teaching? 

178. What is the moral nature ? 

179. What questions does it ask ? 

180. What is the origin of the idea of right ? 

181. What is moral law ? 

182. State the principle of justice. 

183. Give some applications of this law. 

184. What is the principle of beneficence ? 

185. Give some applications of this law. 

186. State the purpose of moral instruction and training. 

187. What knowledge must the child have? 

188. What disposition? What must he acquire by practice ? 

189. State the different means by which instruction may ba 
given. 

190. What is unconscious tuition ? 

191. Why should examples worthy to be imitated be chosen 
rather than those worthy to be avoided ? 

192. How may advanced students be instructed? 
198. What is the most difficult part of this work ^ 

194. Upon what does disposition depend ? 

195. What is desire ? What is good ? 

196. What is a motive ? 

197. What are high and what low motives? 

198. What rule for the selection of motives ? 

199. The first class of motives. 

200. The second, third, and fourth classes. 

201. The lowest motive to which the teacher can appeal. 

202. The highest motive to which appeal can be made. 

203. What should be the final result of moral development, 
instruction and training? 

204. What is character ? 



INDKX 



Page 

Abstraction and analysis 20 

Affections, the 23 

Alternation of studies 61 

Arithmetic, laws of association in teaching •... 53, 54 

Association, laws of 19, 52 

in teaching 54-57 

Attention 53, 54 

Character 98 

Child, the 11 

development of 30 

Choice, freedom of 27 

Civil government, suggestions as to teaching 82, 83 

Classes of things, the child's first ideas of.. 72 

Conception, simple 18 

power of 20 

general... 21 

Concepts, simple- 17 

general 21 

Concrete, lessons 67, 68 

Conscience 26 

Consciousness . 14 

Deduction 74 

illustrations of 75 

Desires... 23, 96 

Development 6 

what it produces 7 

laws of 31-38 

moral 89 

Disposition, on what depends 95 

Education, what it includes 6 

definitions of 7, 8 

divisions of. 9 

beginnings of 14 



106 IKDEX. 

PAGE 

Feelings, bodily 23 

mental 23 

classes of 23 

moral 27 

Generalization 21 

Good, the 96 

Government, suggestions as to teaching civil 82, 84 

History, suggestions as to teaching U. S 85-87 

Ideas, first of classes... 72 

Imagination 18 

Induction 73, 74 

Instruction 6, 7 

moral 92^95 

Intuition 15 

moral 26 

Judgment, the 21 

a 21 

moral __ 26 

Knowledge, relation of , to education 36, 37 

Known, from, to unknown 47 

Language, suggestions as to lessons in._ 50, 51 

before grammar.. 75 

suggestions as to teaching 76 

Law, moral 90 

principles of moral 90, 91 

Laws of mind, general 43, 44 

teaching 44, 52, 58 

special. 63, 64, 70, 71 

suggested applications 80, 82 

Lessons, as to lergth of 58 

assignment of 59 

concrete 67 

Legislature, when best studied 83 

Memory. 18 

cultivation of .. _ 52 

Mental activities, general and special forms of 43 

Methods, divisions of - 34 

defined... 40 

how determined - 41, 43 

Mind, what it is - 14 

laws of 43-58 

Moral, being and nature 25 

nature 89 

intuition, perception, judgment 26 

law 90 



i:n'dex. 107 

PAGE. 

Moral instruction and training 92 

Motives, high and low, classes of _ 96, 97 

Nerves, the 13 

peculiar property of 12 

Object, teaching and lessons 65 

Objective teaching 65 

Observation, by children „ „ 66 

questions as to _ 67 

Perception _ 15 

moral 26 

powers of 16 

Percept, what _ _ 15 

Physical exercises 60 

Principles, of morals 90, 91 

Processes before reasons _ 74 

Progress, order of, in the two stages 69 

Questions, to a person preparing for any work 5 

Reading, teaching of elementary. ' 47-49 

laws of association employed 56 

Reasoning ^ 21 

Representation 16, 17 

real- 17 

ideal . _ 18 

powers of 20 

begins early . _ 70 

Rest and relaxation _ 59 

Right, idea of 89 

Schools, classes of 33 

Sensation 14 

Senses, the 12 

kind of knowledge given by each sense 13 

form in which ihey present knowledge 45 

Sleep 60 

Space and time 15 

Studies, alternation of 61 

Teacher, work of 5,6 

the best- 38 

Teaching, not an end 5 

what it is_ 37 

general laws of. _ 44-58 

special laws of -- 63-72 

Technical terms, as to teaching 78 

Thinking- 20 

forms of— 21 

powers of .«. 22 



108 IXDEX. 

PAGE 

Time and space 15 

Training, what it is 6 

what it produces 7 

Will, the, analysis of an act of 24 

factor in the moral nature 37 

Words, kind of, to be taught to children 77 

technical 78 



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